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THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

FROM THE POINT OF VIEW 

OF ALLEGORY 






W' ROY MACKENZIE 

^ 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 



BOSTON AND LONDON 

GINN AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

1914 



COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY GINN AND COMPANY 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



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HTfte iStfitnamm jgrt<< 

GINN AND COMI'ANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS ■ BOSTON • U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

In beginning this work my aim was to throw some light on 
the allegorical methods employed in the Moralities, l^ut I had 
not proceeded far on this quest before it became apparent that 
a proper presentation of the allegorical methods employed would 
necessarily include a thorough clearing away of the cobwebs of 
misapprehension which cling to most treatments of this species 
of drama, and a complete classification of the Moralities on the 
basis of allegorical structure. In my discussion of existing treat- 
ments of the Morality I have taken high ground, and I shall, 
without doubt, be most heartily criticized for assuming, from the 
start, the complacent attitude that I am right and ever)-body else 
is wrong. I plead, in my defence, that at the beginning of m)- 
study I used all these treatments, not as interesting bits of read- 
ing in themselves, but as prospective guides to a detailed in- 
vestigation of the Moralities. The result was that each new 
guide led me into a new morass, and I soon reached the conclu- 
sion that I could do no worse, at least, by starting out to explore 
the country alone. The excuse for bringing in the results of my 
expedition I can state with a good deal of confidence. It is that 
the Moralities are, not a series of plays which have for the most 
part adopted allegory as a method of presentation, but a series 
of allegories presented in dramatic form. If this is granted it 
follows that the Moralities, before being considered as dramas 
or as chronological factors in a history of the drama, must be 
interpreted and classified as allegories. 

There are a few points of obvious and general interest which 
the most casual student of the Moralities should have in mind at 
the beginning, and which are not out of place even in a preface. 



vm THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

First, and most important, is the reminder that the Morahty, 
though usually exhibiting a most disgusting freedom of language 
in its scenes of vice, coupled often with a purely animal and 
sensual joy in the luxury of sin, had as its constant purpose a 
desire to edify. It was "a game wherein Vices fyght with 
Vertues," and it would hardly be consistent to demand that the 
Vices in this game should deport themselves like prigs, or dis- 
play themselves as benevolent and clean-minded personifications 
of vile and abhorrent sins. The average Vice of the Morality 
has no such virtuous desire in mind. He shows himself in his 
true colors, and if these colors are often suggestive of mud 
and filth, we must at least admit that consistency is a jewel, and 
refrain from a desire to see our friend the Vice clothed in white 
and gold. Personally, I must confess to a base-born partiality 
for this rollicking incarnation of sin who skips merrily through 
so many scenes of the Moralities and interrupts so many dole- 
ful homilies. I am quite conscious now that I have shown this 
partiality — unconscious at the time — in the pages that follow, 
and the excuse that I must present is that I have not written 
this work primarily to inculcate morality. 

The point, then, that we have almost lost sight of is that the 
Morality aims at being edifying on the whole, though it is not 
always so in details. At the close of the action virtue is trium- 
phant, the representatives of vice are discomfited and driven 
from the stage, and Man, except in one or two cases, has ob- 
tained pardon and has attained strength to persist in a useful 
and moral life. This leads to the second point. 

The question might arise, and as a matter of fact often does 
arise. What is this useful lesson that the Morality presents for 
the guidance of life ? In the best-known class of Moralities, that 
in which the human hero is striven for by Virtues and Vices, 
Man regularly falls from grace, persists in sin during a great 
part of his life, and is usually reclaimed to virtue at the close of 



PREFACE ix 

the action, when, in many cases, he has neared the end of his 
days. Do the Morahties, then, teach us to give free rein to our 
lusts and our dishonest desires through the prime of hfe and 
then to embrace virtue with a shrewd eye to the hereafter ? Not 
so. In studying these plays we must never forget that Man is 
not presented as stalking in lordly fashion among Virtues and 
Vices and selecting from them companions at will, but that 
Virtues and Vices are presented as striving for the possession 
of Man. The latter is regarded as inclining to good rather than 
to evil ; consequently, in nearly every case, the Vices have to 
resort to subterfuge in order to win his temporary companion- 
ship. The trick which they almost invariably practise is to in- 
troduce themselves by assumed names as Virtues ; and, having 
once gained the favor of Man, they spur him on to vice and 
crime while deceiving him into the belief that he is leading the 
best possible kind of life. At last Man encounters the true Vir- 
tues and is reclaimed by them. Thus the spectator of these 
plays was put on his guard against the sins which have a spe- 
cious and pleasing aspect, and was taught to recognize the true 
virtues to be practised in the world. 

It would be idle, however, to deny the probability of a purely 
dramatic reason for making the bulk of the action, in a great 
many Moralities, a picture of life in sin, since their only chance 
to provide amusement was through the representatives of vice. 
Consequently these vulgar and fun-provoking persons often oc- 
cupy the centre of the stage during the greater part of the play. 
One cannot but wonder at the constant employment of the 
phrase " bloodless abstractions," used sweepingly to designate 
the Morality actors, as if they were a set of sermonizing autom- 
atons. The Virtues, to be sure, may usually be thus described ; 
but the Vices, on the contrary, are a troop of as virile, resource- 
ful, red-blooded scoundrels as one could wish to meet — or to 
avoid. The chief objection to be made in their case is that. 



X THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

from the point of view of allegory, they are often rendered en- 
tirely too many-sided and human to stand accurately for the 
abstractions which they are intended to personify. And, in con- 
sequence of this tendency to humanize the Vices, we frequently 
find that they are differentiated as actors on the stage rather 
than in accordance with the names that specify their characters. 
This, however, applies to scenes where the Vices foregather to 
cominre sinful experiences, and scarcely ever to scenes where 
they appear as the tempters of Man. 

I should like also to oppose the usual criticism that it is be- 
cause of their allegorical structure that the Moralities are often 
insufferably dull. It is, on the contrary, when the allegory is 
temporarily neglected in favor of an uncalled-for literal expla- 
nation of events, or, as happens more frequently, for a lengthy 
homily, that the modern student must fight his desire to close 
the book. And even here one should regard the matter sympa- 
thetically, and with the realization that the persons for whom 
the plays were produced listened with patience and even with 
pleasure to sermons which inspire us only with impious and re- 
vengeful desires. We may admit, then, that these breaks in the 
allegory are displeasing to the person who turns nowadays to the 
Moralities in the hope of being amused, but what person with a 
sense for that which is true and appealing in literature can fail 
to recognize the beauty of the two Moralities, Everyutati and 
The Play of Wjt mid Scicjice ? And these are two of the most 
finished and consistent allegories in existence. 

Lastly, I wish merely to reiterate a point which I have men- 
tioned in different parts of this work; that is, the admirable 
fitness of allegory for the presentation of a moral lesson by means 
of drama. Indeed, when one considers that a play, to merit the 
name, cannot be merely a sermon or a set of directions, one is 
forced to admit that, in drama, the allegorical structure is the 
most direct means by which a single and connected lesson can 



PREFACE xi 

be taught for the guidance of life. There is no opportunity for 
the display of disturbing human passions and interests such as 
must enter into the play concerned with the fortunes of indi- 
vidual human beings. In the Morality, every character has his 
course of action decided by his name, so that, once given the 
proper set of characters, the lesson works itself out inevitably. 
In the pages that follow, and in more direct connection with 
the plays, this point has, I hope, been made clear. 

This investigation in its first form was presented as a par- \^ 
tial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy at Harvard University. It was begun, and has been 
carried on, with the advice of Professor Neilson, from whom I 
have received, from first to last, the most sympathetic and help- 
ful criticism. To Professor Kittredge, also, I owe the warmest 
thanks. His practical suggestions were of the greatest use to 
me in formulating those chapters in which my main conclusions 
are presented. Professors Neilson and Greenough have read 
the manuscript and proof throughout, and have given me many 
useful hints for revising and emending. And, finally, in the 
preparation of the entire work I have had the cooperation of 
my wife, and many of the conclusions that follow we have 
reached together by the way of discussion. 

W. R. M. 

Washington University, St. Louis 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER I. THE SUBJECT DEFINED . . . . i 

Inconsistency of present definitions. God and the Devil as actors in 
the Moralities. Ward's definition ; its defects. ColHer's definition ; its 
defects. Everyman as a typical Morality ; its characters not in accord 
with the above definitions. Creizenach's definition ; its defects. A new 
definition proposed. The definition as a basis of distinction between 
actual and apparent Moralities: Appius and Virginia; The Conflict of 
Conscience ; The iVice Wanton ; The Disobedient Child; Like Willto Like, 
Quoth the Devil to the Collier. 

CHAPTER II. THE MORALITIES CLASSIFIED . . i8 

Allegorical structure the only satisfactory basis for a classification. 
Dangers in the chronological method. Collier's classification ; its defects. 
Professor Bates's classification ; its defects. Gayley's classification ; its 
defects. A new classification presented on the basis of allegorical 
structure. 

CHAPTER III. ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN THE 

MIRACLE PLAYS 24 

The Coventry cycle : appearance of Contemplacio in Plays VIII, XI, 

XIII, and XXIX ; allegorical action and speech in Plays IX, XI, 

XIV, XIX, XXV, and XLI. The Chester cycle: deliberate avoidance 
of allegory in Play XII, as in Play XLII of the Coventry cycle. The 
Towneley cycle : allegorical dialogue in Play XXXII. The problem of 
the Coventry cycle, and its bearing on the question of relationship be- 
tween the Miracles and the Moralities. Allegorical elements in the 
Digby plays : St. Paul and Mary Magdalene ; importance of allegory in 
the latter. 

CHAPTER IV. MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE 
CONFLICT BETWEEN VIRTUES AND VICES FOR 
SUPREMACY 39 

Comparative smallness of the class. Its departure from the older 
form as in the Psychomachia. Hyckescomer. The Three Laws. New 
Custom. The Three Ladies of London. 

xili 



THE ENGLISH MORALITIES xiv 

PAGE 

CHAPTER V. MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE CON- 
FLICT BETWEEN VIRTUES AND VICES FOR THE 
POSSESSION OF MAN S7 

Size and importance of the class. Necessity of making three sub- 
divisions : I. Man Spiritual. 2. Man Intellectual. 3. Man represented 
merely by one or more personified attributes. The broad distinguish- 
ing features of the three classes. Similarity and dissimilarity between 
this class and that presenting the Conflict for Supremacy- i. Man 
Spiritual: The Castle 0/ Perseverance ; Mankind; A'aturc ; Magnyfy- 
ceftce ; Mttndus et Infans ; The Thrie Estaites, Part I; Lnsty Juventus ; 
Youth; Impatient Poverty; Marie Magdalene; Albion, A'night; The 
Trial of Treasure; The Longer Thou Livest the More Foole Thou AH; 
The Conjlict of Conscience. — 2. Man Intellectual. Points in common 
with the third subdivision, htterhide of the Four Elements. — 3. Man 
represented merely by one or more personified attributes : H'isdoM, 
Who is Christ ; Wyt and Science ; Wealth a>id Health ; The Marriage of 
Wit and Science ; The Marriage of Wit and IVisdom. 

CHAPTER VI. MORALITIES ILLUSTRATING A SPE- 
CIAL TEXT 180 

Relation of the text to the play. Like Will to Like, Quoth the Devil to 
the Collier. The Tyde Taryeth A'o Man. All For Money. 

CHAPTER VII. MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE 

SUMMONS OF DEATH 202 

Appearance of the same motive in The Castle of Pcrseverajicc and 
in the Coventry Slatighter of the Ltnoccnts. Some reasons for the 
very small number in this class. The P?yde of Lyfe. Every nun. 

CHAPTER VIII. MORALITIES DEALING WITH RE- 
LIGIOUS AND POLITICAL CONTROVERSY . .211 

Controversial tendencies common in the Moralities that follow other 
schemes. Distinguishing features of the plays now to be considered. 
The Satyre of the Thrie Estaites, Y^x^ \\. Kynge fohan. KeipiibUca. 

CHAPTER IX. CONTEMPORARY PLAYS WITH MO- 
RALITY FEATURES 235 

Brief summary of the essentials of a Morality. The Alee Wanton. The 
Disobedient Child. Queen Hester, fohan the J^vangelist. A'yng Daryus. 
Horestes. Cambyses. Appius and Virginia. The Three Lords and Three 
Ladies of London. 



XV CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER X. THE MORALITIES CONSIDERED IN 

RELATION TO THEIR ORIGINAL AUDIENCE . 257 

Present attitude toward the Moralities due partly to the generic term 
itself, partly to the employment of allegory and homily. Allegory as 
viewed by the present-day reader ; manner in which it should be em- 
ployed ; its effect in the Moralities when acted. The dramatis personae 
of the Moralities as allegorical figures; considered as "bloodless ab- 
stractions." Possibilities of human interest in the spectacle, which are 
not so apparent in the plays when they are read. Everyman as an act- 
ing performance. Dramatic possibilities of the Conflict scheme ; its 
popularity due to inherent dramatic situations, humor, etc. Compati- 
bility of humor with the avowed moral purpose. Homily in the Morali- 
ties ; its prevalence, and apparent attractiveness to the audience. 
Homiletic moraUzing the chief function of the Virtues. Prevalence of 
homily in preceding and contemporary literature. Conclusion. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND EDITIONS . . .271 
INDEX 275 



THE ENGLISH MORALITIES FROM 

THE POINT OF VIEW OF 

ALLEGORY 

CHAPTER I 

THE SUBJECT DEFINED 

The first impression that one receives in reading the existing 
treatments of the MoraHty is that of a curious discrepancy be- 
tween the definitions presented and the plays which are grouped 
under the definitions. The chief criticism to be made — and it 
is a sufficiently damning one — is that many of these treatments 
restrict the type to such narrow limits that at best only two or 
three plays could be legitimately admitted ; but the constructors 
of these limits, having thus appeased their desire for conserva- 
tism, proceed to admit many plays that could not be included 
under any definition that would not be too broad to warrant us 
in considering the Moralities as a separate class. It is of the 
first importance, then, that we should have some reasonable 
definition, applicable to the facts, and based upon the evidence 
of the plays themselves. If some of the present definitions were 
accepted literally we should have to consign the Morality, as a 
type, to the realm of hypothesis, and this might be a satisfactory 
solution of the problem if it were possible ; but that Moralities 
do exist is attested by the very writers who, while they make 
the type theoretically non-existent, continue to discuss it as a 
real section of dramatic literature. 



2 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

One of the prime causes of confusion is the attitude of some 
writers toward God and the Devil as actors in the Morahty. 
Mr, Chambers, for instance, in his Mediaeval Stage, says : "The 
process of introducing abstractions into the Miracle plays does 
not seem to have gone very far. On the other hand the Morali- 
ties, if God and the Devil may be regarded as abstractions, 
admit of nothing else." ^ 

I shall revert presently to the last part of this second state- 
ment. Just now I am concerned with the clause italicized. It 
seems that Mr. Chambers is suggesting that we regard super- 
natural powers as abstractions in order that the Morality may 
be defined with one sweep of the arm. Evidently he admits 
it without question himself. But would his admission, or ours, 
have anything to do with the case ,? It would seem that the 
necessary admission here should be from the author of the play 
and the people who saw it acted : and, to whatever realms of 
abstraction God and the Devil may have been consigned by 
modern metaphysics, we may be sure that to the people most 
concerned in the production of the Moralities they were real 
and living personages. 

Professor Courthope, in his History of Ejiglish Poetry, takes 
the same view of these supernatural figures. While discussing 
the Miracle Play, he says: "As its main object was to set 
before the people the scheme of redemption, the dramatist did 
not hesitate to place upon the stage impersonations of the most 
abstract conceptions of the mind. God, the nine orders of 
angels, the Devil and his rebel host, were all introduced in the 
pageants," ^ etc. 

It is hardly necessary to argue that the theology of the 
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries did not present Jehovah and 
his great adversary as abstractions conceived by the human 

1 E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage, II, 153. (The italics are mine.) 
!* W. J. Courthope, A History 0/ English Poetry, I, 398. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 3 

mind. To the persons who composed the MoraUties, and to 
those who beheld them upon the stage, God was without doubt 
the mighty sovereign of Scriptural story ; and the Devil was, 
just as truly, an actual personality who, '" as a roaring lion, 
walketh about, seeking whom he may devour." 

The matter is, after all, a very simple one. The playwright 
who believes in the actual existence of supernatural beings, or 
who accepts for dramatic purposes a belief in their actual exist- 
ence, presents them exactly as he would present Achilles or 
Julius Caesar or King Henry the Fifth ; and he knows also 
that, if his contemporaries are capable of a like belief, they will 
regard them in the same light. The skeptic may argue that 
these people are entertaining mistaken beliefs, but that does 
not affect the situation. He may discuss, as he frequently does, 
the reality of supernatural visitations in the days when people 
had certain well-defined theories of demonology ; but if, for 
instance, the Elizabethans believed that a ghost could exist in- 
dependently of a diseased mind, and if Shakespeare understood 
and shared this belief, it is entirely beside the point for the 
person who does not believe in ghosts to argue that the spirit 
of Hamlet's father was purely subjective — a conception of 
Hamlet's unsound imagination. 

Instead, then, of admitting that God and the Devil are ab- 
stractions in the Moralities, I assume that they were, on the 
contrary, as real to the people who saw them on the stage as 
were Hamlet and his father's ghost to a later audience. If this 
is true, plainly the dramatis persojiac of the Morality must 
be capable of including more than personifications of abstract 
qualities. 

But let us turn again to Mr. Chambers's statement that " the 
Moralities, if God and the Devil may be regarded as abstractions, 
admit of nothing else." I propose to show that the Moralities 
will admit of much else, but first I should like to refer to a 



4 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

few other treatments of the subject which avow, or take for 
granted, the same theory, and exclude all but abstractions. 

Ward is quite clear upon the subject. In making his distinc- 
tions between Mysteries, Miracles, and Moralities, he says : 
" Lastly, Morals teach and illustrate the same religious truths, 
not by direct representation of scriptural or legendary events 
and personages, but by allegorical means, abstract figures of 
virtues or qualities being personified in the characters appearing 
in this species of play." ^ 

This seems, at least, unambiguous ; but apparently Ward is 
troubled by doubts of its finality, for he presently adds a formal 
definition : "A Morality may be defined as a play enforcing a 
moral truth or lesson by means of the speech and action of 
characters which are personified abstractions — figures repre- 
senting virtues and vices, qualities of the human mind, or 
abstract conceptions in general." ^ 

This definition, as well as its precursor quoted above, evi- 
dently points to the same conclusion as does Chambers's state- 
ment, the only loophole for escape in Ward's case being the 
fact that he does not explicitly state that all the characters are 
personified abstractions. But if not stated, this is at least implied. 
And in contradistinction to this definition, the treatment of the 
Morality that follows is based almost entirely upon plays that 
contain important type figures, — as, indeed, it would have to 
be if it were based upon actual plays at all. 

A more elusive definition is that presented by Collier : "A 
Moral, or Moral play, is a drama, the characters of which are 
allegorical, abstract, or symbolical, and the story of which is in- 
tended to convey a lesson for the better conduct of human life."^ 

The special characteristic of this definition is extreme vague- 
ness. " Allegorical, abstract, or symbolical " : what steps can 

1 A. W. Ward, A History of English Dramatic Literature, I, 42. 

2 Ibid., p. 100. 8 J. P. Collier, History of English Dramatic Poetry, II, 183. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 5 

one take to reduce this compound to its elements ? Perhaps the 
author had a shrewd suspicion of the truth, and intended these 
terms to include characters, like the familiar human hero, that 
represent neither vices nor virtues ; but one is tempted to sup- 
pose that he grouped the words simply as three synonyms, 
more inclusive than one term by itself. The word "symbolical" 
is especially troublesome. It means, in general, much the same 
as "allegorical," though possibly it is used here to indicate the 
type figures that embody the qualities by which they are dom- 
inated. On the whole, however, it is hard to avoid the conclusion 
that the three terms are grouped together for common protection. 
And undoubtedly the purpose is served, since it is impossible 
to characterize the statement as wrong. Still, as a definition 
it is vague and inadequate. 

In order to show the kinds of characters that constantly 
appear in the Moralities, let us take as a specific instance the 
Morality of Everymaji} since it is better known than any other 
play of its class, and will serve as well as any other for an 
example. The following is a list of the dramatis personac : 



Messenger 


Kyndrede 


Strengthe 


God 


Goodes 


Dyscrecyon 


Dethe 


Good Dedes 


Fyve Wyttes 


Everyman 


Knowledge 


Aungel 


Felawship 


Confessyon 


Doctour 


Cosyn 


Beaute 





Two of the characters, the Messenger and the Doctor, we 
may dismiss from the discussion, since they have no direct con- 
nection with the plot, but merely comment from the outside. All 
the other persons in the list are directly associated with the plot. 

Everyman himself, the hero of the play, is identical with 
Mankind, Man, or Humanum Genus ; that is, he is the repre- 
sentative of the human race, who appears under different names 

1 Dodsley, Old English Plays (ed. Hazlitt), Vol. III. 



6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

in many of the Moralities. We may regard Everyman as a 
representative man without any decided bent in the direction 
of either virtue or vice, but rendered as far as possible color- 
less in order to personate men in general ; or we may regard 
him as inclusive, that is, standing for all men with their pos- 
sibilities for good and evil. The distinction, however, is very 
hazy and, on the whole, is not worth striving for. The point 
of importance is that Everyman is to be regarded, not as an 
individual man, or as the representative of one class, but as 
a highly universalized type, the representative of the whole 
human race. 

Let me make clear the signification of these terms. The in- 
dividual man is, of course, easily understood. He is Tom Jones, 
or William Robinson, or any person with a name applying 
strictly to himself, though he may be broadened arbitrarily into 
the representative of a class of men. The specialized type, or 
representative of a class, is such a character as the lawyer, the 
priest, or Jack Tar the sailor ; that is, a human being confined 
to some particular walk of life, or characterized by some idiosyn- 
crasy. Then we pass, without crossing any distinct boundary, 
to the universalized type, representing persons with more or less 
universal tendencies. In this class are Mr. Worldly Wiseman 
of the Pilgrim s Progress, and Greediness, in the Morality All 
for Money, who stands for greedy men. The most highly uni- 
versalized type of all is the Morality hero who represents the 
entire human family. 

The hero of Everyman is thus not the personification of an 
abstract quality, but a type, and he does not in this respect 
stand alone in the play. After being summoned to his pil- 
grimage by Death, he repairs to Fellowship and beseeches the 
latter to accompany him. Fellowship refuses, and Everyman 
has to leave him behind. What, pray, is Fellowship now ? 
Fickleness, possibly, but certainly no longer the abstract quality 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 7 

of fellowship or friendship. The lament of Everyman himself 
at this point indicates the exact nature of the figure Fellowship : 

It is said, in prosperity ra&n friends may find 
Which in adversity be full unkind. 
Now whither for succour shall I flee 
Sith Fellowship hath forsaken me ? ^ 

That is, Fellowship does not personify an abstract quality, as 
his name strictly interpreted would indicate, but represents 
worldly friends with their capacities for fidelity or fickleness. 
He also is a type — less highly universalized than Everyman — 
of a kind very common in allegory. The Red Cross Knight, 
for instance, in Spenser's Faerie Qneene, is not the quality of 
holiness, or, if so, why should he enter into intimate relations 
with Duessa ? He is rather the man striving for holiness, who 
may at times, consistently with his character as a man, exhibit 
tendencies in the opposite direction. Mercy, in Banyan's Pil- 
grim's Progress, is not the quality of mercy personified, but 
the woman of merciful disposition. It is entirely to misunder- 
stand and over-simplify the methods of allegory to suppose that 
its characters may not be designated by abstract names and at 
the same time be types. 

If we now permit Everyman to resume his speech he will 
presently introduce two other type figures : 

To my kinsmen I will truly, 
Praying them to help me in my necessity : 

I believe that they will do so : 
For kind will creep where it may not go. 
I will go say : for yonder I see them go : 
Where be ye now, my friends and kinsmen [lo] ? '^ 

This appeal brings Kindred and Cousin to his side. After the 
lines just quoted it is unnecessary to argue for their identity. 
They are types — also less highly universalized than Everyman 
— representing kinsfolk. 

iDodsley, III, 113. « Ibid. 



8 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Thus we have, out of fifteen characters taking part in the 
action, one individual character — God; and five more or less 
universalized types, — Everyman, Fellowship, Kindred, Cousin, 
and the angel. The rest are personified abstractions. 

I have selected this play as exemplifying the sort of treatment 
one may expect to find in practically all of the Moralities. The 
Play of Wit and Science, and its later working over as The 
Marria^^c of Wit and Science, exhibit only personified abstrac- 
tions ; but every other existing English Morality (with the 
possible exceptions of Hyckcscorncr and New Qistoni ^) contains 
also types, or individuals, or both ; and a special warning is 
necessary against the conclusion that all abstract names appear- 
ing in the lists of dramatis pcrsonae must necessarily refer to 
personified abstractions in the plays. 

Creizenach's definition of the Morality, though it fails to 
mention some of the chief points of the type, will now be seen 
to come nearer suiting the facts about the dramatis personae 
than any of the definitions already considered : " Mit dem 
Ausdruck Moralitaten bezeichnen die Literar-historiker diejeni- 
gen Dramen des ausgehenden Mittelalters und der Reforma- 
tionszeit, in welchen die Trager der Handlung ausschiesslich 
oder vorwiegend personificierte Abstracta sind." ^ 

The chief advantage of this definition is that it leaves the 
door ajar for the entry of the clamorous characters who recog- 
nize their eligibility, but who realize that they cannot consistently 
pose as "' personificierte Abstracta." Its chief disadvantage is 
that it makes no mention of the prime object of the Morality, 
the presentation of some lesson for the guidance of life. Re- 
move this from the Morality and you strip it of its essential 
quality, its reason for being. Creizenach, also, like every one 
else who has attempted to define the Morality, neglects to 

^ See the treatments of these two plays in Chapter IV. 

^ Wilhelm Creizenach, Geschichte des neneren Dramas, I, 458. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 9 

mention the important element of allegorical structure. Any sort 
of play may introduce allegory as an accidental embellishment, 
but these plays, written primarily to teach a moral lesson, involve 
the allegorical plot as their basis, since any other kind of plot 
is liable to produce a merely human interest in the spectacle of 
living characters in action, instead of centering the attention on 
a moral lesson. Any definition of this species, furthermore, 
which attempts to characterize the chief actors, should make 
explicit mention of the class of figures, exemplified by Every- 
man, who are the natural heroes of the plays. Such figures as 
God, Satan, and individual men and women need not be alluded 
to, since they rarely have any prominent part in the action. 
My definition, then, may take the following shape : 

A Morality is a play, allegorical in stmctnrc, zuhich has for 
its main object the teacJiijig of some lesson for the guidance of 
life, and in which the prijicipal characters arc personified ab- 
stractions or highly tmiversalized types. 

Before we proceed to a detailed examination of the Moralities 
I should like to show by a brief examination of some of the 
plays that approach the border-line from opposite sides, how the 
above definition is to be applied throughout this discussion. 
During the second half of the sixteenth century the Morality 
made noticeable advances toward the drama of real life, and, in 
addition to this, various experiments were being made in the 
dramatic field ; so that we find the materials of Comedy, History 
Play, and Tragedy combined in varying proportions with the 
older Morality. As a consequence of this mingling of forms a 
special confusion has arisen in denominating the plays of the 
period, and no two works on the subject can be found that 
follow the same method — or, indeed, any consistent method — 
in consigning plays to one group or another.^ If my definition 

^ In the following chapter I illustrate the methods employed for the purpose 
by the different writers who have attempted a division. 



lO THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

is to contribute anything to the discussion, it must set up a 
standard, on technical grounds, by which to separate plays that 
are primarily Moralities from plays that are primarily Comedies, 
Histories, or Tragedies. 

As an example of the historical play with distinct Morality 
features which is not a true Morality I shall take Appiiis and 
Virginia} That the play contains an abundance of characters 
that make for allegorical action may be seen from the list of 
dramatis personae : 



Virginius 


Haphazard 


Subservus 


Justice 


Mater 


Mansipulus 


Appius 


Claudius 


Virginia 


Mansipula 


Conscience 


Rumour 


Comfort 


Reward 


Doctrina 


Memory 



Some of the allegorical personages, especially Haphazard, on 
the side of vice, and Conscience, on the side of virtue, play inti- 
mate parts in the plot, and are not without effect on the action 
of the play. Haphazard, in fact, is the originator of the scheme 
by which Appius attempts the ruin of Virginia, and Conscience 
repeatedly warns Appius against the villainous action which the 
latter meditates. 

But is this allegorical action vital to the play ,? The slightest 
outline will show that it is not. Appius at the very beginning is 
mad with love for Virginia. He simply makes use of Hap- 
hazard's clever scheme to serve his own preconceived ends, and 
refuses to listen to Conscience and Justice when they warn him 
against the act which he meditates. The play, in fact, is a pic- 
ture of supposedly historical human beings, with varied human 
interests, acting with relation to each other, but in no sense 
dominated by the Vices and Virtues from whom they receive 
suggestions. The Morality, on the contrary, permits of no 
human action which is not the direct result of an attempt by 
Vices or Virtues to dominate the heart. 

1 Dodsley, Vol. IV. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED ii 

It will now be seen that Appius and Virginia falls far short 
of the standard set up by the above definition. In the first place, 
it is not structurally allegorical ; in the second, it fails to teach 
a specific lesson for the guidance of life, though there are here, 
as in most plays, abundant opportunities to deduce morals ; and 
in the third, it has real persons for its chief actors, while its 
allegorical characters are subsidiary and might be omitted with- 
out affecting the main plot. The play, then, does not fulfil any 
one of the three conditions, and must be classed as an historical 
play with Morality features. 

It might be objected that the example I have chosen is, on 
the face of it, an historical play, and thus outside the realm of 
this discussion. The play, however, which I present in contrast, 
as a real Morality, is also based on an historical incident. 

The Conflict of Conscience -^ by Nathaniell Woodes, is founded 
on the story of Francis Spira, or Spiera, an Italian lawyer who 
abandoned the Protestant for the Catholic faith, and in remorse 
and despair committed suicide.^ The author, however, has sub- 
ordinated the personal element almost to the point of obliteration. 
The action is dominated by personifications of abstract qualities ; 
and Philologus, the hero, though reminiscent of the Italian 
lawyer, is carefully broadened by the author into a universalized 
type. The Prologue gives two reasons for this, the second of 
which is extremely significant : first, comedy will not permit us 
to touch on the vices of one private man, and, second, if the 
play were written about an individual man the audience would 
fail to apply the moral to themselves. The Prologue goes on to 
explain the significance of the hero : 

But sith Philologus is nought else but one that loves to talk, 
And common of the word of God, but hath no further care, 
According as it teacheth them in God's fear for to walk, 

1 Dodsley, Vol. II. 

2 See Sleidan, Vingt-netif Livrcs iV Histoire, Geneva, 1563, Liv. xxi. 



12 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

If that we practise this indeed, Philologi we are. 
And so by his deserved fault we may in time beware : 
Novv if, as author first it meant, you hear it with this gain, 
In good behalf we will esteem that he bestowed his pain.^ 

I add a list of the dramatis pcrsonac in order that it may be 
compared with that of Appiiis and Virginia : 



Prologue 


Tyranny 


Suggestion 


Cardinal 


Mathetes 


Spirit 


Gisbertus 


Cacon 


Conscience 


Horror 


Nuntius 


Philologus 


Paphinitius 


Eusebius 


Hypocrisy 




Satan 


Avarice 


Theologus 





Here, as in Appius and Virginia, appears the puzzHng mix- 
ture of personified abstraction, type figure, and real person. 
Manifestly one must not be content with a reading of the list of 
dramatis personae. An examination of the play itself shows 
that the downfall of Philologus is accomplished by the direct 
persuasion of Vices, that is, personifications of evil qualities 
working in or upon the heart ; and after his fall his state is so 
desperate that nothing but the direct intervention of God can 
save him. I shall elsewhere give a fuller interpretation of the 
allegory in the play, and for the present it will be sufficient to 
indicate its signification very briefly : The Christian who is 
readier to discuss God's word than to walk consistently in the 
fear of God may for a time resist the evil desires of his heart, 
but eventually he yields to the temptations of the world and to 
his own ambition for worldly prosperity. He stills the voice of 
conscience at first, but finally becomes convicted of sin ; and 
then his remorse is so extreme that the comforts of religion 
make no impression upon him, until finally God intervenes 
directly to save his soul. 

Let us sum up, then, the essential differences between the 
two plays. Appius and Virginia may be called a " tendenz " 

^ Dodsley, VI, 33. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 1 3 

play. There are abundant opportunities to draw morals from it, 
and, oddly enough, the moral which the author selects from 
the pack and presses upon his audience is, Let all true virgins 
take pattern from Virginia and lose their heads rather than 
their purity.^ The play has a great deal of allegorical action at 
different parts, but this is incidental and forms no essential ele- 
ment of the plot. The Co7iflict of Conscience^ on the other 
hand, though based on an historical tale, is allegorical in structure 
and teaches one direct and unequivocal moral lesson. 

Other plays, however, that I shall have to reject, come nearer 
meeting the requirements and, indeed, have so much the ap- 
pearance of Moralities that they are nearly always classed as 
such. Two important plays of this category are The Nice Wan- 
ton and The Disobedient Child. Each of them has the earnest- 
ness of purpose and the careful insistence upon a moral truth of 
the regular Morality. Each, in fact, would be a Morality if 
didacticism were the one requirement. They both, however, ex- 
hibit individuals and specialized types in their principal parts, 
and thus differ in a very essential point from the plays exhibit- 
ing personified abstractions and universalized types. Most of 
the action in both plays can be taken literally instead of allegor- 
ically, though the action is always for the enforcing of the moral, 
never for its own sake. 

The play of The Nice Wanton'^ has the following list of 
dramatis personae : 



The Messenger 


Eulalia 


Worldly Shame 


Barnabas 


Iniquitie 


Daniel, the Judge 


Ismael 


Baily Errand 




Dalilah 


Xantippe 





There are only two strictly allegorical names in the play, In- 
iquitie and Worldly Shame, and the latter takes scarcely any 

1 See the Prologue to the play. 

2 J. M. Manly, Specimens of the Pre-Shaksperean Drama, Vol. I. 



14 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

part in the action. Iniquitie, who plays a fairly prominent part, 
is a specific character in all but name. He is a typical gallant, 
a man about town, who joins Ismael and Dalilah at one period 
of their downfall and becomes their boon companion. The 
characters that dominate the action are Barnabas, Ismael, and 
Dalilah, " three braunches of an yll tree." Barnabas is the 
good boy who goes to school, learns his lessons, and never fails 
to become edifying for the benefit of anyone who is unfortunate 
enough to come within hearing. At the end of the play he is a 
grown man, prosperous, and rejoicing in the prospect of many 
years to come in which to instruct his erring fellow-mortals. 
Herein consists half the moral. His brother and sister, Ismael 
and Dalilah, throw away their school-books, break away from 
the virtuous Barnabas, and presently take to throwing dice with 
their friend Iniquitie. By the end of the play Dalilah is '" dead 
of the pockes, taken at the stews," and Ismael is " hanged in 
chaynes." The moral is complete. 

Even such a slight outline as the foregoing cannot leave 
much doubt as to the purpose of the play. Indeed, the moral 
is insisted upon more steadily and more earnestly than in many 
of the full-fledged Moralities, but while the play lacks allegori- 
cal structure no amount of moral earnestness can retain it in 
the class. 

A shorter account of The Disobedient Child'^ will suffice. The 
actors are these : 

Prologue The Woman Cook The Devil 

The Rich Man The Young Woman The Perorator 

The Rich Man's Son The Servingman 

The Man Cook The Priest 

We are here still farther away from the sort of actors proper 
to the Moralities. The author evidently refrained from giving 
proper names to his characters in the fear that they might 

1 Dodsley, Vol. II. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 1 5 

become interesting in their own persons, and thus cause us to 
lose sight of the moral. If so, his object is only partly attained. 
The characters are to some extent dehumanized by their type 
names, but they are still actual people, influencing each other 
in various ways. Some interest is aroused in their fortunes, and 
some curiosity stimulated as to their ultimate fates. There is 
none of the inevitableness of Morality action, where all or most 
of the characters stand for, or are actuated by, some particular 
quality, in accordance with which they are bound to act. Here 
all the characters, except the Devil, may develop in any way the 
author chooses. Consequently the main interest is concentrated 
around these possibilities ; and the moral expressed at the end 
of the play seems to be entirely arbitrary, — a mere suggestion 
given by certain aspects of the story, instead of the inevitable 
lesson worked out when allegorical characters accompany each 
other throughout an allegorical plot. The Perorator, however, 
gives us his solemn assurance that 

By this little play the father is taught 

After what manner his child to use, 

Lest that through cockering he at length be brought 

His fathers commandment to refuse.^ 

In The Nice Wanton there was some semblance of allegorical 
action in the parts played by Iniquitie and Worldly Shame, but 
here there is no trace of it. The son is treated too indulgently 
by his father, acts badly, and suffers for it. It might have been 
more just to punish the father, but fortunately there is no need 
to go into that question here. The moral purpose is at least pro- 
claimed. But the allegorical structure is lacking, and the play, 
though avowedly a moral play, is not technically a Morality. 

At a later point in this work will be found a more careful 
discussion of the plays which, though possessed of Morality 
features, fall outside of the general class. For the present it is 

1 Dodsley, II, 316. 



l6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

sufficient to explain the absence from my list of several plays 
usually classed as Moralities, but properly belonging elsewhere. 

Finally, let us glance for a moment at one of the Moralities 
with a decided leaning towards the drama of real life, in order 
to show how far a play may go in that direction and still remain 
essentially a Morality. The important point here, as elsewhere 
in this introductory chapter, is to prove that the matter of 
division can be and ought to be arranged on technical grounds. 

Like Will to Like, Quoth the Devil to the Collier'^ is the 
mouth-filling title of one of the later Moralities. The author's 
delight in full-sounding names did not stop short at the title- 
page, as the following list of characters will show : 

The Prologue Lucifer 

Tom Tosspot Ralph Roister 

Hankin Hangman Good Fame 

Tom Collier Severity 

Hance Philip Fleming 

Virtuous Living Pierce Pickpurse 

God's Promise Honour 

Cuthbert Cutpurse Nichol Newfangle, the Vice 

The list hardly looks promising from the point of view of 
one arguing for the play as a Morality. But an examination of 
the plot and characters will show that it is mainly the author's 
genius for alliteration — with a suggestion of onomatopoeia — 
that has led him, for the moment, into disguising some of the 
characters in a play conforming closely to the requirements of 
the Morality. Nichol Newfangle is the traditional Vice of the 
Moralities, the personification of " all sins generally." He is 
the godson of the Devil, and his only business on earth is to 
obtain victims for his godfather. The alliterative characters are 
a collection of types of the people who fall readily into the 
snares of sin, or, to speak allegorically, who obey the instructions 

1 Dodsley, Vol. III. The author is Ulpian Fulwel. 



THE SUBJECT DEFINED 1 7 

of Nichol Newfangle and come to grief thereby. Virtuous 
Living, on the other hand, resists the entreaties of Nichol, is 
commended by God's Promise, and is presently joined by Good 
Fame and Honour. 

The play teaches that good living is commended by God and 
also leads to earthly happiness and honor, while evil living — 
of the various kinds illustrated by the dupes of Nichol — leads 
to earthly punishment and a future residence with the Devil. It 
is of the same type as The Nice Wanton in the lesson it teaches, 
though The Nice Wanton is a far more serious and — in the 
ordinary sense of the word — more moral play, holding faith- 
fully to the didactic attitude, while the play under discussion is 
taken up largely with humorous scenes showing the vicious 
side of life in London. The essential difference is that in the 
one play the lesson is taught by means of a concrete illustration, 
in the other by means of allegorical action. 



CHAPTER II 

THE MORALITIES CLASSIFIED 

Although several classifications of the Moralities have already 
been attempted, none of these has been made on any consistent 
basis. The only point of view from which it is possible to make 
a clear and complete division is, I am convinced, that of alle- 
gorical method ; and with the exception of a partial classifica- 
tion, applied to a few of the Moralities, by Mr. R. L. Ramsay,^ 
no such division seems even to have been thought of as yet. 
The plays have been treated either entirely on a basis of chro- 
nology, or else the treatments have been influenced mainly by 
chronological considerations. Dr. Ward's opinion indicates the 
general attitude towards the subject: "In the English Moralities 
it is not easy to draw a distinction between particular groups ; 
and such signs of advance as they show would best be gathered 
from an attempt to survey them chronologically." "^ Professor 
Courthope in his treatment of the Moralities refers to Dr. Ward's 
statement, adding, " I am quite of this opinion";^ and, in gen- 
eral, this attitude is frankly or tacitly assumed. 

There is no objection to a chronological treatment of the 
Moralities, except when it is made the basis for a general and 
purely arbitrary classification. Mr. Pollard, for instance, makes 
two main divisions : ( i ) the earlier plays like T/ie Castle of 
Perseverance, having to do broadly with human nature and 
human life ; and (2) their later and inferior successors, shorter 

^ Robert Lee Ramsay, Skelion^s ^^ Magttyfycence" Introduction. 
2 Ward, I, 108. 3 Courthope, II, 337. 

iS 



THE MORALITIES CLASSIFIED 19 

and more specialized, usually referred to as Interludes, and ex- 
emplified by Hyckescorjicr} It is almost unnecessary to com- 
ment on the misleading tendencies of this division. Such broad 
and sweeping generalities reduce the chronological method to 
absurdity ; and Mr. Pollard goes on to heap up all sorts of 
general statements on the strength of this purely arbitrary 
distinction. 

This, of course, is an extreme instance of the confusion that 
may arise from an attempt to classify the Moralities on a purely 
chronological basis, and I have encountered no other treatment 
of the subject so open to criticism. Collier's division should be 
mentioned in passing, though it is a good deal confused by the 
fact that he makes a separate class for the Macro Moralities,^ 
which had not been published when he wrote, but were known 
to exist in manuscript. His classes are : 

1. Macro Moralities. 

2. Printed Morals, the lesson enforced by which relates to 
the vices and regeneration of mankind at large. 

3. Such as convey instructions for human conduct of a more 
varied character. 

4. Pieces belonging to the class of Morals, but making ap- 
proaches to the representation of real life and manners. 

5. Interludes chiefly without allegory, and particularly those 
of John Heywood.3 

The classification is a fairly sound one as far as it goes, but 
it indicates general tendencies in the plays without establishing 
a basis for anything like an exact division. Furthermore, a close 
study of Collier's treatment reveals the fact that he, too, was 
influenced mainly by the chronological element in making his 
distinctions. A much more detailed classification is attempted 

^ A. W. Pollard, English I\firacle Plays, Moralities, and Interludes, pp. lii-liii. 
^ The Castle of Perseverance ; Wisdom, or Mind, Will, and Understanding; 
and Mankind. ^ Collier, II, 199. 



20 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

by Professor K. L. Bates, who divides the Morahties and 
semi-MoraHties according to the following scheme : 
I. Full scope Moralities (15th century) 
IL Limited Moralities 

a. Dealing with temptations of youth 
d. Written in praise of learning 
in. Transitional Moralities 

a. Written by professional poets 
d. Appeared in Shakespeare's boyhood 
c. Belated 
IV. Early Comedies with Morality features 
V. Early Tragedies with Morality features^ 
The weakness of such a division is at once apparent. It is 
not made from any particular point of view, but it is influenced 
partly by chronology, partly by the general character of the plays, 
partly by authorship, and partly by purely accidental circum- 
stances ; and these different influences come in arbitrarily at 
various points of the classification. 

A method of division that, at a first glance, seems saner and 
more helpful is that of Professor Gayley, who treats the subject 
in his English Representative Comedies, and also, with more 
detail, in his Plays of our Forefathers. His classes, which he 
explains at some length in the latter work, I shall here indicate 
in the smallest possible compass : 

I. Older Morals (produced before 1520) 

1 . Plays interpretative of ideals in life, and relying on 

the fundamentally allegorical 

2. Plays that deal with the actual 

II. Less-known survivals of the Moral Interlude 

1. School plays 

2. Controversial plays 

^ Katharine Lee Bates, English Religiotis Drama, Appendix. See Miss 
Bates's division for full lists of plays grouped under the different headings. 



THE MORALITIES CLASSIFIED 2i 

in. Artistic variations of the stock 

1. A few that show a decided advance in quality, 

even if not in kind 

2. A few Moral tragedies that might also be con- 

sidered 1 

But the classification, despite its plausible appearance, fails 
when it is applied to the plays which Professor Gayley himself 
groups under the different divisions, and would continue to fail 
with equal certainty no matter what grouping might be made. 
Professor Gayley gives no precise definition of the Morality, but 
before proceeding with his own classification criticizes Pollard 
for attempting to make arbitrary distinctions " between plays as 
earlier and later, longer and shorter, which in essential method 
were alike: that is, were allegorical." Thus he implies that 
allegorical method is the sine qua non of the Morality, and the 
main consideration in making a division. Then, as my summary 
shows, he makes his own first division include " Older Morals, 
produced before 1 520," which indicates at the start that he, also, 
is not entirely free from the tendency to group the plays as 
" earlier and later." 

Gayley's whole method of classification is of little use, 
since it does not treat the subject in any consistent fashion ; 
but it is likely to become positively misleading, since it 
throws the main emphasis upon characteristics which ought 
not to count in a general classification, no matter how im- 
portant these characteristics may be in a detailed study of 
the plays. 

The classification which follows is made purely on the tech- 
nical basis of allegorical structure. According to it, every English 
Morality from the beginning down to the close of the sixteenth 

1 Charles Mills Gayley, Plays of our Forefathers, pp. 283 ff. See Professor 
Gayley's work for a detailed discussion and lists of plays. The classification 
given above is abridged from his work. 



22 



THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 



century 1 will be found to follow in its main plot some one of the 
following schemes : 

L Conflict between Virtues and Vices 
a. For Supremacy : 
Hyckescorner. 

Three Laws. By John Bale. 
New Custom. 
The Three Ladies of London. 



(1497-15 12) 
(1538) 
(Printed 1573) 
By R. W[ilson]. 

(1584) 



b. For the Possession of Man 



Ma7t Spirittial : 

The Castle of Perseverance. {circ. 1400) 

Mankind. (1461-1485) 

Nature. By Henry Medwall. (1486-1500) 

Magnyfycence. By John Skelton. (i 5 1 5-1 5 1 8) 
Mundus et Infans. (Printed 1522) 

The Thrie Estaites, Part \. By Sir David 

Lyndsay. (Played 1540, and perhaps earlier) 



Lusty Juventus. 
Youth. 

Impatient Poverty. 
Marie Magdalene. 



Albion, Knight. 



(1547-1553) 
(1553-1558) 
(Printed 1560) 
By Lewis Wager. 

(S. R. 1566. circ. 1560) 
(1560-1565) 

The Trial of Treasure. (Printed 1 567) 

The Longer Thou Livest the More Foole Thou 

Art. By W. Wager. (i 571-1576) 

The Conflict of Conscience. By Nathaniell 

Woodes. (Printed 1581) 

Man Intellectual : 
Interlude of the Four Elements. (Printed 15 19) 



1 A few Moralities that appeared in the seventeenth century were mere 
scholastic revivals of the old stock. 



THE MORALITIES CLASSIFIED 23 

3. Man Represented merely by 0?te or More Personified 
AtUibutes : 
Wisdom, or Mind, Will, and Understanding. 

(1480-1490) 
Wyt and Science. By John Redford. («n:. 1545) 
Wealth and Health. (S. R. 1557) 

The Marriage of \yit and Science. 

(S. R. 1569-1570) 
The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom (i579) 

II. Illustration of a Special Text: 

Like Will to Like, Quoth the Devil to the 

Collier. By Ulpian Fulwel. (Printed 1568) 

The Tyde Taryeth No Man. By George Wapull. 

(Printed 1576) 
All for Money. By T. Lupton. (Printed 1578) 

III. The Siminions of Death: 

The Pryde of Lyfe. {circ. 1400) 

Everyman. (Printed before 1 5 3 1) 

IV. Religions or Political Controversy : 

The Three Estaites, Part II. 

Kyng Johan. By John Bale. (Printed circ. 1 548) 

Respublica. (i5S3) 



CHAPTER III 

ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN THE MIRACLE PLAYS 

The most important of the Miracle cycles, from the point of 
view of the student of Moralities, is that of Coventry .^ Two of 
the important motives used in the early Moralities, the Summons 
of Death ^ and the so-called Debate of the Four Daughters of 
God,^ are found here ; and, in addition to this, there is a general 
tendency throughout to introduce allegorical figures. The most 
noticeable of these figures is Contemplacio, the " exposytour in 
doctorys wede," who appears from time to time as a kind of 
Prologue to introduce the action, or to accompany it as chorus. 
I shall indicate the different appearances of this figure, and then 
go on to discuss the allegorical action more directly connected 
with the plays. 

Contemplacio first appears to introduce Play VIII {The Bar- 
renness of Anna). '^ Here he simply performs the part of Pro- 
logue, as he does at his next appearance in Play IX {Mary in 
the Temple). At the conclusion of the same play he comes out 
again to beseech the audience for patience and to announce the 
next performance. 

1 Usually referred to as " the so-called Coventry Plays," or " Ludus Coven- 

triae." Gayley (pp. 205 ff.) uses the term " N Town plays." Manly prefers 

the term " Hegge plays," and explains, " I have chosen to call the plays by the 
earliest known owner^f the MS., for I see no reason to connect them with 
Coventry, and 'so-called Coventry plays' is a clumsy expression." — Speci- 
mens of Pre-Shaksperean Drama, I, 31. 

2 Cf. the Moralities Pride of Life and Everyman. 
' Cf. Castell of Perseveraunce and Respublica. 

♦ The text used here is that edited for the Shakespeare Society by 
J. O. Halliwell. 

24 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 25 

As the introducer of Play XI {The Salutation and Conception), 
Contemplacio takes on more allegorical significance. He throws 
off the technical character of Prologue, laments the fallen state 
of man, and ends with a prayer to God for compassion. 

In Play XIII {The Visit to Elizabeth), Contemplacio com- 
bines the duties of Chorus, Epilogue, and spiritual adviser. After 
Elizabeth and Zachariah go up to the temple to worship, he ap- 
pears and instructs the audience as to "" how the Ave was mad," 

adding : 

Who seyeth oure ladyes sawtere dayly for a ^er thus, 
He hath pardon ten thousand and eyte hundryd 3er. 

He then proceeds to comment on the action behind the scenes, 
and brings the play to an end. 

His next and last appearance is in the middle of Play XXIX 
{King Herod), where he fills up a gap in the performance, while 
the processions are moving into place. He greets the audience : 
" Sofreynes and frendys, 3e must alle be gret with gode," and 
then explains what has gone before and what is to follow. 

In all these appearances Contemplacio makes his address 
directly to the audience, and has no connection with any other 
character in the plays. He is, therefore, of no special allegorical 
significance. 

As the other allegorical touches in the cycle are sporadic and 
have no connection with each other, I shall simply take them 
up in the order of the plays in which they occur. 

In Play IX {Mary in the Temple), after the three-year-old 
Mary has nimbly ascended the "fiftene grees," the bishop gives 
her careful directions for the ruling of her life, and then bestows 
upon her an allegorical assemblage of maidens and priests to at- 
tend her : 

Our abydynge xal be with our maydenys ff)rve, 
Whyche tyme as ^e wole have consolacion. 
Maria. This lyffe me lyketh as my lyve, 
Of her namys I beseche 30U to have informacion. 



26 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Episcopus. There is the fyrst Meditacion, 
Contryssyon, Compassyon, and Clennes, 
And that holy mayde Fruyssyon : 
With these blyssyd maydenes xal be 3our besynes. 

Maria. Here is an holy ffelachepp, I fele 
I am not wurthy amonge hem to be : 
Swete systeres, to 30U alle I knele, 
To recyue, I beseche, jour charyte. 

Episcopus. They xal, dowtere, and on the tothere syde se, 
Ther ben sevne prestys indede, 
To schryve, to teche, and to mynystryn to the, 
To lerne the Goddys lawys and Scrypture to rede. 

Maria, ffadyr, knew I here namys, wele were I. 

Episcopus. Ther is Dyscressyon, Devocion, Dylexcion, 
and Deliberacion, — 
They xal tende upon 30U besyly ; 
With Declaracion, Determynacion, Dyvynacion; 
Now go 3e, maydenys, to jour occupacion. 
And loke je tende this childe tendyrly ; 
And je, serys, knelyth, and I xal gyve 30W Goddys benyson, 
In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti ! 

Then follows the stage direction : " Et recedent cum ministris 
suis omnes virgines, dicentes ' Amen.' " 

The next allegorical scene, which occurs in Play XI {The 
Salutation and Conceptioii), is of uncommon significance. It is 
based on the tenth verse of the 85th Psalm, " Mercy and Truth 
are met together ; Righteousness and Peace have kissed each 
other," a text which has been the basis for allegorical treatment 
from the tenth century down.^ In the present instance the 
debate of the four sisters before the Trinity, and the consequent 
annunciation by the angel Gabriel, occupy a full play. 

Play XI is opened by Contemplacio,^ and then the four sisters 
argue before the Trinity on the proposed redemption of Man. 
Truth maintains that when Adam sinned God had said that 
Man should die and go to hell, and now he f"?mnot be restored, 

^ For a discussion of this allegory, in all its phases, see Hope Traver, The 
Four Daughters of God, Philadelphia, 1907. ^ See p. 24, above. 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 27 

since " twey contraryes mow not togedyr dwelle." If God breaks 
his word now, she, Truth, will be lost to him, Mercy answers 
that Man grieves greatly for his transgression and is pleading 
for mercy, and reminds God that he has said that he will have 
mercy on Man. Then Righteousness breaks in with : 

Mercy, me mervelyth what 30W movyth, 

3e know wel I am 3our syster Ryghtwysnes, 

God is ryghtfful and ryghtffulnes lovyth, 

Man offendyd hym that is endles, 

Therefore his endles punchement may nevyr sees ; 

Also he forsoke his makere that made hym of clay. 

And the devyl to his mayster he ches, 

Xulde he be savyd ? nay ! nay ! nay ! 

Mercy rebukes Righteousness for her revengeful spirit, pleads 
the frailty of man, and again appeals to the endless mercy of 
God. Peace then interposes, reminding her sister that 

It is not onest in vertuys to ben dyscension. 

She admits that Righteousness and Truth have spoken reason- 
ably, but still she is inclined to side with Mercy, 

ffor if mannys sowle xulde abyde in helle, 
Between God and man evyr xulde be dyvysyon, 
And than myght not I Pes dwelle. 

Her advice is that the whole matter be referred to Christ, who 
will judge in wisdom. They agree to this, and lay the case be- 
fore "wysdam," or Christ, who is inclined to favor Man, but is 
unwilling to lose Righteousness and Truth. He proposes, there- 
fore, that heaven and earth shall be sought for one who is will- 
ing to die for the redemption of Man. This person, however, 
must be without sin, so that hell will have no power to hold him. 

Truth answers that she has sought through the earth, but 
can find no man that is without sin from the day of his birth, 
and Mercy adds that she has sought heaven and has found 
none that has charity to suffer the deadly wound for Man. Then 



28 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Christ summons a council of the Trinity to see which of them 
shall restore mankind, and in this council he offers himself, 
since in his wisdom Man was created. When the matter is 
settled Mercy breaks out joyously, 

Now is the loveday mad of us fowre fynially, 
Now may we leve in pes as we were wonte : 
Misericordia et Veritas obviaverunt sibi 
Justicia et Pax osculatae sunt. 

Then the sisters kiss each other, and Gabriel is sent to make 
the announcement to the Virgin Mary.^ 

The next appearance of allegorical characters is in Play XIV 
{The Trial of Joseph and Mary), where the two chief accusers 
of Joseph and Mary are Backbiter and Raise-Slander. They 
have no object in making their accusations, but are actuated by 
innate viciousness ; and their language and deportment are so 
exactly like those of the regular Vices in the Moralities that it 

1 Hone suggests as the immediate source for this scene the " Council of the 
Trinity " in the EngHsh Speculum Vitae Christi {^Ancient Mysteries Described, 
1823, pp. 73-76). Courthope {History of English Poetry, 1895, I> 4^5) states 
that it was borrowed from Grossteste's Chateau d'' Amour. Hope Traver {The 
Four Daughters of God, pp. 126, etc.) compares the scene with a version 
of the allegory found in the 14th century prose treatise, The Charter of the 
Abbey of the Holy Ghost (C. Horstmann, Richard Rolle of Hampole, 1896. It 
is doubtful whether Rolle is the author) which offers some special resemblances. 
Miss Traver makes extended use of parallel passages to show these resem- 
blances. She concludes that both these versions of the allegory ultimately 
belong to the group going back to the Meditationes Vitae Christi, by Cardinal 
Bonaventura of Padua (Sancti Bonaventurae . . . Opera, London, 1668, VI, 
335-336) and that either the Salutation scene must derive directly from the 
Charter, or both the Charter and the Salutation scene must be using a common 
source which is itself in turn derived from Bonaventura. In the Charter the 
allegory of the Four Daughters has been thrust into another allegory, and in 
the process somewhat disarranged, whereas in the Salutation scene the events 
follow the regular order; also, the Charter ^ot.% not introduce the annunciation 
of Gabriel, which appears in Bonaventura, and also in the Salutation scene. 
Miss Traver concludes : " In spite, therefore, of the resemblances between 
these two versions at many points, it is difficult to believe that the Salutation 
was derived from the Charter." 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 29 

will be worth while to quote a considerable part of their speech. 
Raise- Slander, the primus detractor, comes out first and intro- 
duces himself to the audience : 

A ! A ! serys, God save 30W alle. 
Here is a fayr pepyl in good ffay ; 
Good seres, telle me what men me calle, 
I trowe yt kannot, be this day ; 
3itt I walke wide and many way, 
But ^et ther I come I do no good. 
To reyse slawndyr is al my lay, 
Bakbytere is my brother of blood. 

Dede he ought come hedyr in al this day, 
Now wolde God that he were here ! 
And be my trewthe I dare wel say, 
That if we tweyn togedyr apere, 
More slawndyr we to xal arere. 
Within an howre thorweouth this town. 
Than evyr ther was this thousand 3ere, 
And ellys I shrewe 30W both up and downe. 

Now by my trewthe I have a syght 
Evyn of my brother, lo ! where he is : 
Welcom, dere brother, my trowthe I plyght, 
3owre jentyl mowth let me now kys. 

Secundus detractor. Grammercy, brother so have I blys, 
I am ful glad we met this day. 

Primus detractor. Ryght so am I, brothyr, i-wys, 
meche gladder than I kan say. 
But 3itt, good brother I 30W pray. 
Telle alle these pepyl what is 3our name ; 
ffor if thei knew it, my lyf I lay. 
They wole 30U wurchep and speke gret fame. 

Secundus detractor. I am Bakbytere that spyllyth alle game, 
Bothe kyd and knowyn in many a place. 

Primus detractor. Be my trowthe I seyd the same 
And 3et sum seyden thou xulde have evyl grace. 

Secundus detractor. Herk, Reyse-sclaundyr, canst thou owth telle 
Of any newe thynge that wrought was late ? 



30 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Primus detractor. Within a shorte whyle a thynge befelle, 
I trowe thou wylt lawh3 ryght wel therate, 
ffor be trowth, ryght mekyl hate, 
If it be wyst, therof wyl growe. 

Secundus detractor. If I may reyse therwith debate, 
I xal not spare the seyd to sowe. 

Then Raise-Slander tells his brother of the impending trial, 
and the pair plan to make it as hard as possible for Joseph and 
Mary. Through the ensuing scene they endeavor to prove Mary 
guilty, and scoff openly when she is proved innocent by the drink 
of purgation. Then the bishop presiding at the trial compels 
Raise-Slander to test the drink himself. This second test is at- 
tended with dire results to Raise-Slander, who feels as if his head 
were on fire, and who gets no relief until he begs Mary's pardon. 

The quotation given above will show how closely these two 
characters are related to the traditional Morality Vices, especially 
in their manner of introducing and explaining themselves to the 
audience. Also, like the usual Vices, they are "brothers of blood" 
and have no settled abode, but simply appear in the places where 
they can do most harm. They are the natural enemies of good- 
ness, here embodied in the earthly father and mother of Christ. 

No other allegorical elements appear before Play XIX {The 
Slaitghter of the Innocents), where occurs the well-known Sum- 
mons of Death motive.^ After the slaughter of the children 
Herod seats himself at a feast with his knights and soldiers, ex- 
ulting in the belief that his rival is slain. " I was never merrier 
since I was born ! " he exclaims. " In joy I begin to glide! " 

At this moment Death enters, looking for the king whom he 
has heard " make preysying of pride." He announces : 

I am Dethe, Goddys masangere ! 
Allemyghty God hath sent me here, 
3on lordeyn to sle, withouten dwere, 
ffor his wykkyd workynge. 

1 See Creizenach, I, 461-462, and Chambers, II, 153. 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 31 

While Death, in the background, is boasting of his power and 
exulting over his intended victim, the unconscious Herod con- 
tinues to exhort his knights to be merry and glad. He assures 
them repeatedly that his rival must be dead, and, in a burst of 
gaiety, orders the minstrel to " blowe up a mery fytt," when 
suddenly Death approaches and strikes him down : "Hie dum 
buccinant mors interficiat Herodem et duos milites subito, et 
diabolus recipiat eos." When the Devil has borne his victim 
off. Death delays, exhorts his hearers to be warned by the death 
of Herod, and moralizes on his own omnipotence. 

This ends the allegorical action in the Coventry Plays ; but 
there are a few other passages to which attention should be called. 

In Play XXV {The Coitncil of the Jews), Lucifer makes a 
long speech in the course of which he renames the Deadly 

I have browth 30W newe namys, and wyl je se why 
ffor synne is so plesaunt to eche mannys intent, 
je xal kalle pride oneste, and nateralle kend lechory, 
And covetyse wysdam there tresure is present ; 

Wreth manhod, and envye callyd chastement ; 

Seyse nere sessyon, lete perjery be chef ; 

Glotonye rest, let abstynawnce beyn absent ; 

And he that wole exorte the to vertu, put hem to repreff. 

To rehers al my servauntes my matere is to breff, 
But alle these xal everyth the dyvicion eternal ; 
In evyrlastynge peyne with me dwellyn thei xal. 

This trick of changing names is practised by the Vices in 
almost all of the Moralities where they attempt to delude man 
and lead him into a life of sin. The allegorical interpretation 
of all these changes is neatly summed up by Lucifer in this 
speech, — " ffor synne is so plesaunt to eche mannys intent." 

It is of very little allegorical significance that in Play XLI 
ij^he Assumption of the Virgin) Christ speaks under the name 
of Sapientia. Christ is frequently referred to as Wisdom or 



32 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Sapientia, as in the Salutation scene already discussed, and in 
the Morality of Wisdom, Who is Christ. 

In the final play of the cycle {The Doomsday), specific men- 
tion is again made of the Seven Deadly Sins, when the devils 
are claiming the souls of the damned because of their adherence 
to the Sins. I shall transcribe the passage, since I shall have 
occasion to refer to it again : 

Secundus diabolus. I fynde here wretyn in thin fforhed, 
Thou were so stowte and sett in pryde, 
Thou woldyst nott 3eve a pore man breed, 
But ffrom thi dore thou woldyst hym chyde. 

Tertius diabolus. And in thi face here do I rede, 
That if a thryfty man com any tyde, 
Drynk from hym thou woldyst evyr hyde ; 
On covetyse was alle thy thought. 

Primus diabolus. In wratthe thy neybore to bakbyte, 
Them for to hangere was thi delyte, 
Thou were evyr redy them to endyte ; 
On the seke man rewyst thou nought. 

Secundus diabolus. Evyr more on envye was alle thi mende, 
Thou woldyst nevyr vesyte no presoner ; 
To alle thi neybores thou were unkende, 
Thou woldyst nevyr helpe man in daunger. 

Tertius diabolus. The synne of slauthe thi soul xal shende, 
Masse nore mateynes woldyst thou non here, 
To bery the deed, man, thou woldyst not wende, 
Therfore thou xalt to endles ffere : 
To slowthe thou were ful prest. 

Primus diabolus. Thou haddyst rejoyse in glotonye. 
In dronkesheppe and in rebawdye, 
Unherborwyd with velonye 
Thou puttyst from here rest. 

Secundus diabolus. Sybile Sclutte, thou ssalte sewe, 
Alle 30ur lyff was leccherous lay ; 
To alle jour neybores je wore a shrewe, 
Alle 3our plesauns was leccherous play, etc. 

The only one of the Sins not mentioned by name is lechery. 
But lechery is not forgotten, as the last accusation will testify. 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 33 

The other cycles may be passed over with scarcely more than 
a word. There is one short passage from the Chester cycle ^ 
which I should like to quote, as showing, not a disposition 
toward allegory, but on the contrary a deliberate avoiding of 
it when allegory might easily have been indulged in. 

In Play XII (The Temptation), the expositor explains how 

Christ overcame the devil : 

Loe ! Lordinges, God's righteousness, 
as St. Gregorie makes mynde expresse, 
since our forefather overcomen was 
by three thinges to doe will. 

Gluttony, vayne glorye there be twooe, 
Covetousness of highnes alsoe, 
by these three thinges, without moe, 
Christ hath overcome the devill. 

The expositor goes on to contrast with this the experience of 
Adam, who was tempted in gluttony, in vainglory, and in avarice. 
His object is to show that Adam and Christ were tempted in 
the same ways, but while Adam fell Christ was victorious. 
The vices which might have been represented as assailing them 
allegorically are carefully described as " these three thinges." 

In ihQ Jtiditium, the concluding play of the Townley Mys- 
teries,^ there is a conversation among the demons where four 
virtues and the Seven Deadly Sins are personified. The demons 
are reckoning up their rolls for Doomsday : 

Secundus daemon. Thise rolles 

Ar of bakbytars, 

And fals quest-dytars 

I had no help of writars 

But thise two dalles : 
Faithe and trowthe, maffay, have no fete to stande, 
The poore pepylle must pay if oght be in hande, 
The drede of God is away and lawe out of lande. 

^ The text used is that of the New Shakspere Society, ed. T. Wright, 1843. 
2 The text used is that published by the Surtees Society, 1836. 



34 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Later on Tutivillus makes his contribution, and presently comes 

to the Deadly Sins : 

Yit of the synnes seven som thyng specialle, 
Now nately to neven, that ronnys over alle, 
Thise laddes thai leven as lordes rialle, 
At ee to be even picturde yn palle 
As kynges. 



Of ire and of envy fynde I herto 
Of covetyse and glotony and many other mo, 
Thai calle and thai cry " go we now, go, 
I dy nere for dry," and ther syt thai so 

All nyghte 
With hawvelle and jawvelle, 
Synging of lawvelle, 
Thise ar howndes of helle, 

That is thare right. 

This is the only allegorical passage in the cycle, and it is 
interesting to compare it with the Coventry Doomsday} where 
there is no attempt to personify the Sins, 

There remain the two Digby plays, St. Pmd and Mary 
Magdalene? The Co7iversion of St. Pajil^ does not contain 
allegorical action, but in the speeches of Belial and in the ser- 
mon of the converted Saul the Seven Deadly Sins are personi- 
fied, and also, on the side of vice. Sin and Folly, — regarded 
as synonymous with Pride, the chief of the Sins, — and Vanity, 
Vainglory, and False Idleness. On the side of virtue are Humility 
and Pity. These personifications are treated with a considerable 
amount of detail, but the general method of handling is much 
the same as that illustrated in the foregoing paragraphs. 

In Mary Magdalene^ the allegorical element is more impor- 
tant, — so much so, indeed, that the play has been sometimes 

1 See p. 32, above. 

2 The Digby MS. is assigned to the last decade of the fifteenth century. 
^ Ed. Furnivall, for the New Shakspere Society. In Manly, Vol. I. 

* The text used is that in Furnivall's edition. 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 35 

classed as a Morality. It is usually, however, referred to as a 
Morality-Mystery, which is a much safer classification. The 
main interest of the play is in the conversion of Mary and in 
her subsequent journey to convert the heathen King of Marcylle ; 
so, with Dr. Ward's convenient distinction ^ in mind, I prefer 
to call it a Miracle play with Morality features. 

After some introductory scenes dealing with the family of 
Mary and the death of her father, the Morality element begins 
with a council of the three kings, — the World, the Flesh, 
and the Devil .^ First appears the World, vaunting his power, 
and attended by Pride and Covetousness ; then Flesh and his 
spouse Lechery, his knight Gluttony, and his friend Sloth ; and, 
lastly, Satan with his attendants Wrath and Envy, Satan tells 
his followers of his desire to bring " mannes soule to obeysauns." 
Wrath answers : 

With wrath or wyhylles we xal hyrre wynne. 

The three unite to plot the downfall of some woman, without 
mentioning any name, — a singularly abrupt way of introducing 
Mary as the intended victim. Satan summons his brother kings 
to a council, and they lay their plans for Mary's ruin.^ Lechery 
is selected to seduce her, and sets out to perform her task. 

^ Ward, I, 41, makes the distinction that Mysteries deal with gospel events 
only, while Miracles are concerned with incidents derived from the legends of 
the Saints of the Church. The distinction is a convenient one, though there is 
no evidence that it was actually used. 

2 These three characters are referred to also as the King of the World, the 
King of the Flesh, and the Prince of Devils. 

8 The three kings, as they come out, proclaim their power over the world 
and man in general ; and the Devil expresses his desire to corrupt man. After 
this the sudden introduction of a particular person to strive for is exceedingly 
abrupt. The author evidently feels it to be so ; and later, at the council, Mun- 
dus gives a good reason for directing their combined efforts at Mary : 

Sertenly serys, I yow telle, 

yf she in vertu stylle may dwelle 

she xall byn abyll to dystroye helle 

but yf your counsyll may othyrwyse devyse. 



36 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

At the beginning of the next scene is the stage direction : 
" Her xalle pe VII dedly synnes bi-sege ]>e castell tyll they 
a-gre to go to Jerusalem.^ Lechery xall entyr ]>e castell with 
]>e bad angyl," etc. Within the castle, Lechery finds Mary 
lamenting the death of her father. She begins by artfully prais- 
ing Mary's beauty, and Mary, accepting the bait at once, gives 
her a warm welcome. Lechery comforts her, and advises her 
to forget her grief by amusing herself. This advice pleases 
Mary, and she prepares to accompany Lechery on a journey. 
Lazarus bids her an affectionate farewell, and the pair set out 
for Jerusalem. 

After the arrival at Jerusalem, Lechery takes her companion 
to a tavern and orders the taverner to bring out the best wine. 
Curiosity, a gallant, enters, exulting in his fine clothes and long- 
ing for some pretty girl to amuse himself with. Lechery whispers 
to Mary that this is the man for her, and Mary asks the taverner 
to call him in. Curiosity ^ comes and begins at once to make 
love to Mary, who is soon persuaded to return his affection and 
protests that she will go to the end of the world for his sake. 
He invites her to go and dance, and they retire together. 

In the next scene the Bad Angel reports to the three kings 
that Mary has been seduced by Curiosity. The Devil bids 
Lecher)' (who has come back in the meantime) to return to 
Mary and keep her in sin ; then the three kings, having accom- 
plished their object, take their leave and depart with their 
respective trains. 

1 Nothing more is made of this siege of the Castle of Maudleyn. It would, 
of course, be represented in acting, but has no place in the dialogue. 

2 It is possible, of course, to read allegorical significance into the figure 
Curiosity.. He seems to be the personification of fastidiousness or nicety, espe- 
cially in matters of personal adornment, — a common mediaeval application of 
the word. In that case the play teaches that Mary's downfall began in an in- 
ordinate desire for finery. This view, it is to be noticed, is taken in the later 
play presenting Mary as its heroine. See pp. 1 1 1 ff., below. 



ALLEGORICAL ELEMENTS IN MIRACLE PLAYS 37 

Then follow three short scenes. The first shows Mary in an 
arbor, waiting for her lover ; in the second Simon the Leper 
announces that he has ordered a grand dinner and wishes that 
he could get the great Prophet to come ; in the third the Good 
Angel rebukes Mary for her sin, and Mary at once repents and 
resolves to seek Christ. 

After this Jesus appears with his disciples and enters the 
house of Simon the Leper. Mary follows with a box of oint- 
ment, washes the feet of Christ, and dries them with her hair. 
Then Christ forgives Mary her sins and bids her depart in 
peace. Seven devils (regarded, of course, as the Seven Deadly 
Sins) leave her, the Bad Angel enters into Hell with noise of 
thunder, and the Good Angel rejoices. 

In the next scene the Devil howls with rage at losing Mary, 
and orders the Bad Angel and the Seven Deadly Sins to be 
beaten for their carelessness.^ 

This ends the allegorical portion of the play. The remaining 
scenes, to which the part discussed is really preliminary, are 
taken up with the miracles performed by Mary on her mission 
to convert the heathen King of Marcylle.^ 

It will now be seen that, outside of the Coventry cycle and 
Mary Magdalene, the allegorical elements in the Miracle plays 
are practically negligible. As to the question of the relationship 
between these plays and the Moralities, much light might be 
looked for from the solution of the problem of the origin of the 
plays now commonly associated with Coventry. The theory that 
allegorical elements were taken from the Miracles and developed 
into the Morality has been made the basis for much unwarranted 

^ This punishment also takes place in the Castle of Perseverance, with which 
play this portion of Mary Magdalene has a good many points in common. 

2 The present play follows pretty closely the version of the story in the 
Legenda Aurea of Jacobus a Voragine (c. 1275). The latter work was pub- 
lished by Caxton in 1483, under the title of The Golden Legend, in a free English 
translation made with the help of an older French version. 



38 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

generalization.^ Whatever influence the Mysteries exerted upon 
the Moralities — and with two types of drama so closely allied 
in the dissemination of religious instruction it would be unrea- 
sonable to deny the older form some influence on the younger 
— it seems much more probable that, as far as allegorical treat- 
ment is concerned, the Moralities influenced the Mysteries. The 
only certain relationship here, then, is in the general purpose 
of disseminating religious and moral instruction through the 
medium of drama, and the actual sources from which the Moral- 
ities drew their distinctive methods of presenting this instruction 
must be sought elsewhere. In the non-dramatic literature of 
mediaeval and early modern times there is a large body of alle- 
gorical work written with the same didactic purpose, and recent 
research is making it more and more apparent that this was the 
source from which the Moralities drew not only their general 
method but also many of the specific details of their presentation. 

1 See, for instance, Collier, II, 184, and Symonds, Shakspere's Predecessors 
in the English Drama, pp. 145 ff. 



CHAPTER IV 

MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE CONFLICT BETWEEN 
VIRTUES AND VICES FOR SUPREMACY 

The conflict between Vices and Virtues is the theme of the 
greater number of Morahties, and in most of the plays of this 
class the struggle is for the soul of Man. An older form of the 
conflict, however, is still represented by a few plays coming 
under my division I, a.^ But even in these plays, which preserve 
the general formula of " Conflict for supremacy," the manner 
of carrying on the conflict is very different from that in the 
oldest known treatment of the theme, the Psychomachia of 
Prudentius ^ (about 400 a.d.), where the struggle took the form 
of a series of Homeric single combats. It is quite possible that 
this primitive mode of battle may have been used in the two 
lost English plays of the Paternoster and the Creed,^ but in 
the extant Moralities the Virtues and Vices combat each other 
by means of argument; or, more properly, the Virtues argue 
while the Vices abuse and revile them. 

The first play of this class is Hyckescorner,^ which, like the 
earlier Morality Mankind, was written to amuse as well as to 
chasten. The stage is held during a great part of the play by 
Imagynacyon, Frewyl, and Hyckescorner, of whom the first two, 
at least, are personifications of human characteristics. But when 

1 See p. 22, above. 2 gge Creizenach, I, 463. 

2 Ibid., Ill, 495; also Ward, I, 97 ; Pollard, p. xlii ; and Ramsay, Skelton's 
^^ Magnyfycence" pp. cli-clii. 

* Manly, Vol. I. The play was printed about 1530. Gayley (p. 283) dates 
the composition between 1497 and 1512. 

39 



40 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

they are not in actual contact with their enemies, the Virtues 
of the play, Imagynacyon and Frewyl are a pair of light-hearted 
rascals fresh from the streets of London. 

Yet these lighter scenes are no more essential to the plot 
than are the humorous scenes in a tragedy. The moral is the 
thing. Here, as in most of the Moralities, the allegory refers 
to a struggle within the heart of man. This general statement 
about the Moralities as a whole will not, however, apply to the 
remainder of the subclass now under consideration ; since of 
the four plays forming the group all except Hyckescortier deal 
with forces — good and evil — operating at large in the land, 
and not confined within the compass of the heart of man. In 
Hyckescomier all the personifications represent characteristics 
of men, and the play is separated from Class I, b only by the 
fact that Man himself is not presented in the action. 

The play opens with a lengthy discussion on the subject of 
the Redemption, by Pyte, Contemplacyon, and Perseveraunce, 
who proceed to a hearty condemnation of the social and religious 
evils of the day, and retire somewhat dispirited. But the atmos- 
phere is soon brightened by the appearance of Frewyl, who 
enters in high glee, and is reduced to soberness only when he 
discovers that his pocket-money has disappeared. He calls 
impatiently for Imagynacyon, who presently enters in a state of 
momentary dejection because he too has been robbed of his 
pocket-money, and has received, into the bargain, a " payre of 
sore buttockes." But these two irrepressibles cannot remain 
downcast very long, and they soon fall to recounting gleefully 
their adventures about town and their plans for stealing more 
money in order to continue their patronage of the taverns 
and stews. 

Suddenly Frewyl bethinks him of their friend Hyckescomer, 
who ought to be in this merry company. The pair set up a 
shout, and in a moment Hyckescomer is heard outside, yelling 



HYCKESCORNER 41 

nautical directions. He apparently gets his ship satisfactorily 
moored, and then joins his friends, who listen open-mouthed 
to his tales of strange lands and adventures. The three finally 
decide to stroll out and enjoy the pleasures of the town ; but as 
they are departing Frewyl and Imagynacyon get into a quarrel, 
and Hyckescorner, interfering in the interests of peace, gets a 
sound drubbing from Imagynacyon. Just at this moment, how- 
ever, Pyte enters, and the three rascals at once make common 
cause against him. Frewyl runs for a "payre of gyves," the other 
two pick a quarrel with Pyte, and, Frew)'l appearing again at the 
proper moment with his "medycyne for a payre of sore shynnes," 
they clap Pyte into the stocks and proceed on their errand. 

Pyte now compels the audience to share in his misery by 
forcing them to listen to a long and lugubrious sermon on 

the text, 

We all may say weleaway 

For synne that is now-adaye ; 

Loo, vertue is vanysshed for ever and aye : 

Worse was hyt never ! 

But at last Contemplacyon and Perseveraunce enter and put 
an end to the sermon by setting Pyte free. Pyte rushes out in 
a fury of zeal to convert his persecutors, and his two companions 
are presently joined by Frewyl, who stumbles upon them by 
mistake. He attempts to retreat, but is seized and borne down 
by a torrent of arguments from Contemplacyon and Persever- 
aunce, finally convinced of his wickedness, and brought to 
repentance. 

At this juncture Imagynacyon enters in a state of lively 
satisfaction over the fact that he has been made " controller 
of all the houses of lechery." Announcing the glad news to 
Frewyl, he is almost struck dumb by the latter's rejoinder, 

God graunte the waye to heven I maye fynde, 
For I forsake thy company. 



42 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Recovering himself, however, he turns furiously upon the two 
responsible for Frewyl's disaffection ; but they, reinforced by 
Frewyl, beat down his arguments, and finally convict him of sin 
also. The converted sinners are given new coats to symbolize 
their change of character, and Imagynacyon's name is changed 
to Good Remembraunce. Perseveraunce gives them instructions 
for the guidance of their new life, and so the play ends. 

The interpretation of the play is rendered somewhat more 
difficult by the presence of Hyckescorner himself, who is ob- 
viously the chief Vice, and whose name would indicate that he 
is, as usually interpreted, a type character rather than a personi- 
fied abstraction. It is impossible to prove conclusively that he 
is either the one or the other, but the only bit of direct evidence 
that the play affords would seem to give him the latter char- 
acter. Frewyl and Imagynacyon are waiting for him to join 
them, and Frewyl asks, " Ye, but where is Hyckescorner now,?" 
*' Some of these yonge men," answers Imagynacyon, alluding 
to the audience, " hath hydde hym in theyr bosomes, I warraunt 
you." ^ This may be a mere joke at the expense of the audience, 
but if it is taken at its face value it would indicate that Hycke- 
scorner is stupid scoffing rather than the stupid scoffer ; and 
though there is no other direct evidence of this in the play, 
neither is there any evidence to the contrary. Therefore it is 
better to exonerate the author from the blame of creating such 
an unnecessary confusion in a play of this allegorical structure 
as to introduce one type figure along with his abstractions,^ and 

1 P. 396- 

2 It is, of course, not necessary that type figures should be barred from a 
play of this class. In such a play as The Three Ladies o/Lofidon, with its more 
pretentious list of dratnatis personae, types are introduced easily and naturally 
on both sides, good and evil. But in Ilyckescorne)- the list is simplified as much 
as possible, and to introduce a type figure to assist the Vices in their war against 
the Virtues would seem to be a complication out of harmony with this evident 
desire to simplify. 



THE THREE LAWS 43 

to regard Hyckescorner as standing for stupid scoffing against 
God's word and piety of life. The other characters are unequiv- 
ocal. They are all personifications of abstract qualities ; Pyte, 
Contemplacyon, and Perseveraunce on the side of virtue, and 
Imagynacyon and Frewyl on the side of vice.^ 

Leaving out of account the realistic embellishments, which 
have nothing to do with the main plot, we can interpret the 
allegory thus : The will, which is free, arrays itself in opposition 
to the sense of divine goodness ("pity" is here used in the 
wider signification of mercy or goodness) which struggles for 
recognition in the heart. The heart is further seduced by 
evil imaginings and by stupid jeers at piety of life, and the 
knowledge of divine goodness is rendered inoperative. But, by 
the contemplation of God's mercy and perseverance therein, the 
heart is relieved from the domination of vicious thoughts. The 
worship of divine goodness again operates, the will is brought 
into harmony with the will of God and travels only in the paths 
of religion, while the evil imaginings of the heart are changed 
to grateful recollections of God's goodness.^ 

The Comedy Concerning TJiree Laivs^ written by Bishop Bale 
(1538), is placed in this class by its allegorical plot; but in 
purpose it is first and foremost a vicious attack on the Roman 
Catholic Church such as only the " bilious Bishop " was capable 
of. Most of the late Moralities were written by Protestant sym- 
pathizers,^ but none of the other authors was carried so far by 
his sympathies as was Bishop Bale. 

1 See note i, p. 50, below. 

2 It will readily be seen that Imagynacyon and Frewyl are not out-and-out 
Vices, though they are virtually that throughout most of the action. They are 
neither essentially good nor essentially bad. Thus, the logical result of their 
defeat by the Virtues is a conversion in their characters. 

3 In The Dramatic Writings of John Bale, ed. by John S. Farmer, 1907. 

* Cf. Creizenach, III, 35 fif., 515. This statement means only that most of 
the plays were Protestant in their sympathies, not necessarily that they were 
controversial plays. 



44 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

For the present we may turn, with thankful hearts, from the 
bitter and revolting invective against Catholicism. Though it 
is most evident that the grim Bishop considered this the first 
reason for the existence of the play, yet from our present point 
of view we can ignore it completely and concern ourselves only 
with the allegorical plot, which he was careful to preserve. Here 
the struggle goes on in the land at large, and, allegorically, is 
not to be interpreted as raging within the heart of man. 

The play is almost devoid of action, and is taken up chiefly 
with gleeful speeches on the part of the different Vices, to show 
their popularity in the Catholic Church. The Prolocutor indi- 
cates the general course of the play ; then, in the first scene, 
Deus Pater addresses the three laws, Naturae Lex, Moseh Lex, 
and Christi Lex, and gives each his commission with regard 
to men : 

Thou, law of Nature, teach thou him, first of all, 
His Lord God to know, and that is right to do : 
Charge and enforce him, in the ways of us to go. 
Thou, law of Moses, and Christ's law finally. 
Raise him and save him, to our perpetual glory. 

The three laws profess their loyalty to God, then leave to carry 
out the divine commands. 

The next scene is headed Naturae Lex Comipta. Naturae 
Lex appears on earth and proclaims his intention to act accord- 
ing to God's will. Then Infidelitas, the chief Vice of the play, 
enters and engages him in a long argument, throughout which 
Infidelitas employs the regular abusive and scurrilous language 
of the Vice, while Naturae Lex responds, as the Virtues always 
do, with dignity and high disdain. Finally Naturae Lex leaves 
in disgust, and Infidelitas summons two of his followers, Sodo- 
mismus and Adolotria, and instructs them to corrupt men in 
order to overcome Naturae Lex. After a long conversation, in 
which the unsavory doings of the Catholic clergy are recounted 



THE THREE LAWS 45 

with great zest, the two minor Vices go out to perform their 
work. Infidelitas tells the audience what they are doing, and 
retires. Then Naturae Lex comes in lamenting, and disfigured 
by leprosy. He himself has not sinned ; but men have become 
corrupted, and that has brought the disease upon him. 

The next scene — Moseh Lex Cornipta — follows the same 
scheme. Moseh Lex encounters Infidelitas just as his predeces- 
sor has done, and then goes about his work. This time Infi- 
delitas summons Avaritia and Ambitio, and sends them out to 
undermine the labors of Moseh Lex, who finally arrives on the 
scene " stark blind." 

The last encounter — Christi Lex Comipta — is slightly 
varied. After the argument and separation between Christi 
Lex and Infidelitas, the latter summons Hypocrisis and Pseudo- 
doctrina to perform his work ; and while the three are smack- 
ing their lips over the scandals of the Romish Church, Christi 
Lex comes on them. The three Vices at once overcome him, 
and Infidelitas sends him out under the guard of his two 
henchmen to be burned at the stake. 

In the last scene Deus Pater interferes to save his laws. He 
rebukes Infidelitas sternly, then strikes him with fire. Infidelitas 
disappears in a blaze, screaming that he is doomed to hell. 
Then Deus comforts his three laws, and restores them to their 
original state. 

The interpretation runs as follows : God has framed three laws 
for the guidance of man, — the law of nature to lead him in the 
paths of virtue, and the laws of Moses and of Christ to instruct 
him in true religion and to bring him at last into heaven. These 
laws are proclaimed among men so that all may understand them. 
But the people are unfaithful to these laws. They practise un- 
natural vices and give themselves over to idolatry, thus pervert- 
ing the law of nature ; they are greedy and ambitious, and render 
the law of Moses of no avail ; and by their hypocrisy and their 



46 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

leaning toward false beliefs they are led to forget the teachings 
of Christ. But eventually God will appear in his wrath and 
will sweep away this unbelief which corrupts the hearts of men ; 
and then his beneficent laws will be used for the guidance of 
the people. 

Of the three leading personifications that dominate scenes ii, 
iii, and iv, Naturae Lex is infected with leprosy in the first; 
in the second Moseh Lex is made " stark blind " ; and in the 
third Christi Lex is sent out to be burned. But it is important 
to notice that none of these personifications is cornipted in the 
sense of giving himself over to a life in sin. In that case the 
allegory would break down, since it is impossible for a virtue or 
a conception essentially good to be anything but good. It may 
be rendered inoperative — as the laws are — by the prevalence 
of vice, but must always retain its essential quality. In the play 
last considered, two personifications, Frewyl and Imagynacyon, 
are Vices at their first appearance and are finally converted into 
Virtues ; but that is because the powers of free will and imagi- 
nation are neither essentially good nor essentially bad, but are 
good or bad according as they are directed, and this is carefully 
explained in the play. 

New Custom ^ is more avowedly a controversial play than The 
Three Laws, though it lacks the bitterness of the latter. The 
purpose behind the allegorical teaching is plainly advertised in 
the list of dramatis personae, where each abstraction is made to 
stand also for a type, as " Perverse Doctrine (an old popish 

1 Dodsley, Vol. III. The play was printed in 1 573, but was probably written 
some years earlier. Fleay [History of the Stage, p. 64) conjectures that it was 
" probably altered from one {i.e., a Morality] of Edward VI's time as the con- 
troversy about square caps is alluded to in it as contemporary. This question 
was raised by John Rogers and Richard Hooper in 1550. In its present state 
the Morality is of the time of Elizabeth, but as the revival of old Moralities is 
mostly met with very early in her reign, and very few actors — four — are re- 
quired in this one, I would date it 1562-1563, near King Darius, which is so 
like it in its anti-papistry." 



NEW CUSTOM 47 

priest)," and so on. The play, consequently, falls in the present 
class on account of the nature of its plot, but has affiliations 
with Class IV on account of its pronounced controversial spirit. 

Though the characters here, as in the play preceding and the 
play following, all represent forces operating in the land rather 
than in the heart of man, they cannot be said to exclude the 
latter idea, since all so-called national virtues are in reality virtues 
practised by the people of the nation. The distinction is, of 
course, a rather hazy one, but it is worth insisting upon, as it 
seems to have been felt in that age of literary abstractions, and 
as it was responsible for two very different attitudes in the 
Moralities. 

After the Prologue explains the purpose of the play, and 
deprecates any displeasure that may arise in the audience. 
Perverse Doctrine and Ignorance enter with bitter complaints 
that "the world was never in so evil a state." The young 
people, instead of " playing at quoits or nine-holes, or shooting 
at butts," are busying their immature brains with theology, the 
proper concern of older and wiser heads. Perverse Doctrine is 
particularly aroused over the case of a young fellow who has 
lately been preaching in London. " But," he exclaims irascibly. 

If I had had the boy in a convenient place, 
With a good rod or twain, not past one hour's space, 
I would so have scourged my merchant that his breech should ache. 

Ignorance is in full accord with the sentiments of Perverse 
Doctrine, and — rather paradoxically, since he is supposed to 
be "an old Popish priest " — states that he is "' the mother of 
true devotion." The pair vow vengeance on New Custom, the 
young minister who is undermining their power, and, for the 
better accomplishing of their purpose, change their names, — 
Ignorance to Simplicity, and Perverse Doctrine to Sound Doc- 
trine. With this precaution they feel secure in the belief that 
they " may go in any place and never be blamed." 



48 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

At this point the object of their hatred appears, giving utter- 
ance to a soliloquy on the ignorance and wickedness of the 
Catholic Church. The choleric Perverse Doctrine, after stand- 
ing this as long as he can, bursts in upon the speaker in a 
towering rage. New Custom retorts with that superior placidity 
always assumed by a Virtue in conversation with a Vice, and 
informs Perverse Doctrine that he is the elder of the two, and 
has a perfect right to his opinions. "What," exclaims Perverse 

Doctrine, 

Older than I ! 
The young knave, by the mass, not fully thirty, 
Would be elder than I, that am above sixty ! 

New Custom assures him, with unabated suavity, that he is 
" a thousand and a half " years old.^ After a protracted argu- 
ment the disputants separate, and in the next scene New Custom 
enters conversing with his friend Light of the Gospel, who 
addresses him as Primitive Constitution. 

Ignorance, Perverse Doctrine, and his sister Hypocrisy then 
lay their heads together to plan the downfall of their two ene- 
mies. Cruelty and Avaride enter opportunely while they are at 
their counsels, and are engaged as confederates. In order to 
" delude the people in every place " Cruelty's name is changed 
to Justice-with-Severity, and Avarice's to Frugality.^ After a 
song to celebrate their compact the Vices depart on their mission. 

1 This is a natural confusion resulting from the double aspect of the play, 
— a contest between Virtues and Vices for supremacy, and a controversy be- 
tween Catholic priests and Protestant clergymen. Perverse Doctrine as the 
priest is " above sixty," but as the Vice is as old as the Catholic faith. New 
Custom as the clergyman is " not fully thirty," but as the Virtue representing 
the Protestant religion is — or maintains that he is — fifteen hundred years old. 

* It is to be noticed, always, that the constant changing of names on the 
part of the Vices is to delude the people, who, in this case, are behind the 
scenes, but on whose preference the victory depends. The Virtues, except in 
one or two cases, which may be regarded as irregular, are not deceived, and 
it is not intended that they should be. 



NEW CUSTOM 49 

But Perverse Doctrine, the most fiery of the conspirators, is 
soon to be coerced into an utter revolution of character. He 
stumbles accidentally upon a conference between New Custom 
and Light of the Gospel, and tarries a little too long to gloat 
over the destruction that he has prepared for them. They seize 
and compel him to listen while they heap argument after argu- 
ment upon him. Perverse Doctrine is at first rebellious and 
abusive, then becomes passive, and finally is won over to the 
other side. His name is changed to Sincere Doctrine, and he 
is reassured and instructed successively by Edification, Assur- 
ance, and God's Felicity. Then the play ends with a prayer for 
Queen Elizabeth. 

In interpreting this Morality one must remember that the so- 
called New Custom is not New Custom at all, but Primitive 
Constitution. He is known by the former name to his enemies 
and to strangers, but his friend Light of the Gospel addresses 
him as Primitive Constitution throughout, and he himself ex- 
plains this toward the end of the play, while addressing the 
vanquished Perverse Doctrine. The interpretation should run 
as follows : The original constitution of God's church has been 
forgotten, and men, owing to their ignorance, have taken up 
with false doctrines. When, after many years, the old faith is 
introduced again, the believers in these false doctrines refuse to 
recognize the original doctrines of their religion, and denounce 
them as innovations. They have become hypocritical and ava- 
ricious, and, animated by the cruelty which is a natural result of 
their false worship, they prepare to destroy the followers of this 
new faith. But this supposed new doctrine is the one counte- 
nanced by God's word. When the adherents of the false belief 
have proof of this thrust upon them in the written word of the 
Bible, and understand that the religion they had supposed to 
be an innovation is really the original faith of their church, they 
are no longer able to combat the true belief, but are converted. 



50 'I'liK i:\(;lisii moralitiks 

With this interpretation in mind it will be seen that the action 
of the [)hiy is not so haphazard as it at first appears. The con- 
version of Terversc Doctrine, which seems at first to happen 
quite by chance, and to be not only unneccssaiy, but e\en unde- 
sirable (from an allegorical point of view), is really necessary to 
sij^nalize the complete victory of New Custom, or Primitive 
Constitution. That is, the only complete victory that one can 
gain over one's religious oi)ponents is to succeed in converting 
them. I am not arguing for this scene as a merit in the play as 
a play. It is rendered necessary only by the controversial nature 
of the allegor)-. h'rom an artistic point of view the con\ersion 
of I'erverse Doctrine is a blemish in the allegory, since, tech- 
nically, a Vice should always remain a \'ice.^ The clianging of 
Tcrverse Doctrine to Sincere Doctrine is the deliberate convert- 
ing of a Vice to a Virtue, and is \ery different from the chang- 
ing of Imagynacyon (in llyckcscoriicT) to Good Remembraunce. 
In the present play the author sacrifices technical consistency 
to religious zeal, and both the drama and the allegory suffer in 
consequence. 

'Jlic 'Ilnrc Ladies of Lo)idon^\)^ R. Wilson, is a much more 
pretentious allegory than any we have yet considered. It repre- 
sents the gradual spread of evils, religious, political, and social, 

1 Ncilson has noted that in allegory a personification easily retains his 
essential character as loiii; as he is aclnc. I'ut as soon as he becomes passive 
hcis likely to be persuaded, cajoled, or bullied into a complete revolution of 
character. ;is if he were a type figure instead of the personification of an ab- 
stract quality. In the conversion scene Perverse Doctrine is regarded as the 
typical adherent of a false faith (or. in the controversial aspect of the play, as 
a typical Catholic) and not as that false faiih itself (or Catholicism). 

- 1 )()dsley, \'ol. VI. The play is dated i 5S.}. but ]'"lcay [llistoy vf tlic Sliv^c. 
PP- 39-40) suggests an earlier date of composition: "' 'J'hc Ji"ic\ representing 
the greediness of worldly chusers and bloody minds of usurers' {School of 
Abuse) was acted before 1 ^-y (in the Jiull Theatre). .Surely this was the play 
of the 'Jhiw f.iidits of f.oihloii, in which Cerontus, a Jew of Venice, is the chief 
human char.ictcr; the others are mostly allegorical personifications. It is de- 
voted to the subject of the greed of the folK)\vers of l.ady l.uc-e, and in it 



TlIJi TJIRKK J.ADJliS OF J.OSDOA' 51 

and the gradual loss of virtue. In the last scene of tlic TJircc 
Ladies, Lucre, the leader of the Vices, and Love and Conscience, 
the chief representatives of goodness — who have been overcome 
and corrupted by Lucre and her band — are indiscriminately 
sentenced to punishment. This is an obviously unsatisfactory 
conclusion. The author himself felt that the play was unfmished 
as it stood, and about ten years later he came out with a sequel, 
TItc Three Lords and Tliree LMdies of Londo}i, in which the 
three ladies, good and bad, are indiscriminately restored to hap- 
piness. This later play was, partly at least, inspired by the recent 
victory over the Spanish Armada,^ as the chief scene is a mimic 
battle between the three Lords of London and the three Lords 
of Spain. It has got s<j far away from the traditional Morality 
scheme, and is so late in the period, that it must be regarded 
as merely an artificial revi\al. It is allegorical throughout, but 
lacks the moral element and singleness of purpose which char- 
acterize- the orthodox Morality. We can detect, in fact, three 
distinct purposes : first, to reestablish the three Ladies of Lon- 
don in a condition of prosperity ; second, to celebrate the luiglish 
victory over the Spaniards; and third, to show the superiority of 
London over other parts of l^ngland. Obviousl)- the play cannot 
be regarded as a Morality, in spite of the fact that the pla)- to 
which it is a sccjuel is one. 

Usury murders Hospitality. T.ut this play was written by R. \V(ilson). and if 
its identity with 'J'/ic Jr<j be admitted, must have been acted by Leicester's 
men." I'leay goes on to conjecture that i5S-i, or the twenty-seventh year of 
IClizabcth's reign, given on the play as the date, was the date of publication, 
not of performance. 

The evidence Un this identification seems to me quite insufficient. Mcay's 
statement that Gerontus, the Jew, "is the chief human character" is misleading. 
The part played by Ocrontus is almost negligible. All he does is to dun 
Mercatore (an Italian merchant who /j "the chief human character") for an 
unpaid bill, and then generously forgive him the debt rather than have Merca- 
tore resign his faith and "become a Mahomet." 

^ The play, which is to bo found in Dodsley, Vol. \'I, was printed in 1592, 
but, as the editor suggests, it may have been written about two years earlier. 



52 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The Three Ladies of London itself comes so late in the period 
that it has decided leanings toward the drama of real life. Not 
only are a great many type figures introduced, — of a kind 
familiar in London, and not very highly universalized, — but 
the abstractions themselves who carry the burden of the action 
are all dressed on the stage to represent familiar types. Further- 
more, the play has constant reference to conditions in London. 
These attributes all raise the question of the eligibility of the 
play to appear as a Morality, but it emerges from the test with 
the three main requisites uppermost : it has the allegorical 
structure, it represents the sort of actors proper to a Morality, 
and it teaches a lesson for the guidance of life. This last may 
be expressed in one statement, — When love and conscience are 
subordinated to greed for gain the land suffers in consequence. 

The play opens with the complaints of Love and Conscience 
that all men are now attached to Lady Lucre, and that her fol- 
lowers have little liking for Love and Conscience, Fame exhorts 
them to stand firm, and promises them a '" triple crown " if they 
establish their supremacy over Lucre. The two ladies, however, 
continue to suffer from low spirits, and Fame leads them out to 
provide chaste amusement for their recreation. 

Dissimulation comes upon the scene, '" having on a farmer's 
long coat and a cap, and his poll and beard painted motley." 
He is not willing, however, to run any risk of being mistaken 
for a mere farmer, and explains himself to the audience : 

My name is Dissimulation, and no base mind I bear, 

For my outward effects my inward zeal do declare ; 

For men do dissemble with their wives, and their wives with them again, 

So that in the hearts of them I always remain. 

He is soon followed by Simplicity attired like a miller, and by 
Fraud in the guise of a ruffian. Simplicity ventures to give 
Fraud some good advice and narrowly escapes a sound thrash- 
ing in consequence. Then Simony and Usury come in, hand 



THE THREE LADIES OF LONDON 53 

in hand, and a grand reunion takes place, in which, for some 
reason, the luckless Simplicity is not included. 

Love and Conscience reenter, and the four rogues, Fraud, 
Dissimulation, Usury, and Simony, at once ask to be admitted 
to their service, but are rejected. Then Simplicity takes heart 
of grace, applies, and is accepted ; whereat he waxes bolder 
and expresses a wish to be Love's " good-man." But this is too 
much. He is informed that " Love may not marry in any case 
with Simplicity," and he is fain to content himself with the 
humbler role of servant. Love and Conscience depart, taking 
their new follower with them. 

The rejected petitioners see Lady Lucre coming toward 
them, and at once greet her with an application for favor and 
service. Usury says he has come from the service of old Lady 
Lucre in Venice on purpose to enter that of young Lady Lucre, 
and is assured that he may live even more pleasantly in England 
than in Venice. Lucre accepts them all, making Dissimulation 
her steward, Fraud her rent-gatherer. Usury her secretary, and 
reserving Simony for " such matters as are ecclesiastical." 

Mercatore, dressed like an Italian merchant, comes looking 
for Lady Lucre. Dissimulation agrees to present him for a con- 
sideration. Mercatore pays his fee, is introduced, and is well 
received by Lucre, who tells him that he must not be over- 
squeamish about his business affairs if he wishes to win her. 

Artifex comes and pleads with Dissimulation and Fraud to 
introduce him to Lucre, but since he neglects to pay his fee 
the promised introduction never comes. He is followed by a 
lawyer who is on the same errand. The latter shows himself 
much more apt to win the good offices of Fraud and Dissimu- 
lation, and he is presently led inside to where Lucre has retired. 

Simplicity has a cousin Sincerity, who has studied in both 
Oxford and Cambridge, but lacks a benefice. He comes to his 
cousin, who refers him to Conscience for help. Conscience 



54 THP: ENGLISH MORALITIES 

recognizes his qualifications and wishes to help him, but her 
power in such matters has of late become very slight. He then 
presents his credentials to Lucre, who looks them over, but says 
that her servant Simony has charge of all such matters. Dis- 
simulation here joins in to inform her that there is one living 
which she may bestow without Simony's consent, the parsonage 
of St. Nihil, This is accordingly presented to Sincerity, and 
Simplicity is highly elated over his cousin's good fortune until 
the latter informs him that Nihil means nothing. 

Meanwhile Love and Conscience have been sinking deeper 
and deeper in poverty, owing to the machinations of Lucre and 
her followers. Usury now tells Conscience that she may have 
her house for another quarter for forty pounds (the old rent 
was ten pounds a year), and then will have to leave. I'resently 
Simplicity appears with the gowns of Love and Conscience, 
which are all they have left to send for the quarter's rent. He 
meets Dissimulation, and the latter shows that he has a new 
plan for overpowering Love, since he sends her gown back 
to her with some gold in addition. Conscience's gown, he says, 
may go to Usury, and her skin with it. 

Hospitality, who has appeared once before to invite Con- 
science to a simple dinner on " bread and beer, one joint of 
meat, and welcome," now comes in, closely followed by Usur)', 
who sets on him to murder him. Conscience runs in and tries 
to prevent the crime, but she is helpless, and poor Hospitality 
is dragged out to his death, crying dolefully, '" Farewell, Lady 
Conscience ; you shall have Hospitality in London nor England 
no more." 

Conscience is finally reduced to selling brooms for a living. 
While she is engaged in this business Lucre comes along, buys 
the brooms, and makes Conscience an offer, to the acceptance 
of which C'onscience is driven by her poverty. According to 
the terms of the offer Conscience must keep a cottage to which 



THE THREE LADIES OE LONDON 55 

Lucre may resort when she wislies " with familiar friends to 
play," since her own house is watched by constables and spite- 
ful neighbors. Lucre sends Usury for her "box of all abomi- 
nation," and, dipping her fingers in the box, spots Conscience's 
face over. Then Conscience goes to her new position. 

Dissimulation now takes advantage of the poverty of Love 
to seduce her into a marriage with him. Soon her head swells 
monstrously, and she is compelled to wear a " vizard." The 
Virtues are now completely overcome. 

The final scene depicts the trial of Love, Conscience, and 
Lucre before Judge Nemo, Lucre is convicted of adultery and 
of conniving at the murder of Hospitality. She is condemned 
to a place of darkness, to be burned forever in a lake of fire 
and brimstone. Love is sent along with her, to pine in endless 
pain, because she has sold herself to Lucre ; and Conscience is 
sent to prison till the day of general session. 

The characters, in the main, are easily interpreted. The per- 
sonifications all represent forces operating in the land at large 

— with a more specific application to London. On the side of 
virtue, Love and Conscience are forces for good, and Fame is 
the reward accompanying them. Sincerity and Hospitality are 
Virtues. On the side of vice. Lucre is money with an evil con- 
notation. Dissimulation, I'raud, Simony, Usury, and Cogging 
are vices practised throughout the land. Nemo is an Agent of 
Retribution, and Diligence, or Serviceable Diligence, appearing 
simply as a constable — as he does in many of the Moralities 

— is a negligible figure. Simplicity is not a vicious character, 
neither is he uncompromisingly good. His virtue is of a nega- 
tive kind, and he occupies a position much like that of the clown 
in the drama of real life. 

Several type figures are introduced to point the moral. 
These are Mercatore, the merchant ; Artifcx, the artificer ; 
Peter Pleaseman, the parson ; Wily Will ; Tom Beggar ; and 



S6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

the Lawyer. Gerontus the Jew and the Judge of Turkey are 
individuals. These figures, as the outline has shown, bear only 
a slight part of the action. 

To go carefully into the interpretation of the allegory would 
be to do very little more than repeat the outline of the play. 
In order to present the underlying significance a very general 
interpretation will be clearer and more useful : When love and 
conscience are subordinated to greed for money, all sorts of 
evils result. This greed becomes manifest not only in business 
and professional activities, but also in religion. As easy methods 
of accumulating money rapidly, fraud and usury are practised, 
and simony becomes a regular practice in the Church. The old 
spirit of hospitality cannot exist while each man is seeking to 
rob his neighbor. At length the better feelings of men — 
love and the promptings of conscience — are completely over- 
come and cease to have any part in the dealings of life. Then 
comes retribution. 1 The constant struggle for money at all costs 
has driven out the tendencies which make for general peace 
and happiness, and the land is plunged in misery and remorse.^ 

1 The play is not clear, at this point, as to the source of vengeance. We 
should expect the arrival of some such figure as Despair. 

2 The punishment, also, is very indefinite. It may represent national 
calamity, or simply general remorse for evil deeds. The play, as I have 
shown, does not come to a logical conclusion, and we must conjecture either 
that it was hurriedly finished, or that it was deliberately left in an unfinished 
condition in order to leave opportunity for a sequel. 



CHAPTER V 

MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE CONFLICT BE- 
TWEEN VIRTUES AND VICES FOR THE POSSESSION 

OF MAN 

The bulk of the English Moralities depict a struggle between 
personified virtues and vices to win the favor of Man. This, 
when translated into literal terms, refers to the eternal struggle 
in the human soul between evil passions and impulses for good. 
I have made three subdivisions of this motive : i . Man Spiritual 
(where the struggle is for the human soul). 2. Man Intellectual 
(where the struggle is for the human mind). 3. Man repre- 
sented merely by one or more personified attributes. 

The demands for condensed expression in a table of classifica- 
tion may have left some obscurity in the phrasing of the first 
two subdivisions. In both of them Man appears in person, and 
the struggle takes the form of repeated attempts on the part of 
the personified virtues and vices to obtain his favor and compan- 
ionship. In the first he is approached, on the one hand, by Vices 
who tempt him to renounce piety and live in sin, and, on the 
other, by Virtues who urge him to live in the fear of God. In 
the second the Vices tempt him to an existence of idleness and 
ignorance, as against the Virtues, who strive to win him over 
to a life of study. In the third subdivision the distinction lies 
in the fact that Man himself does not appear as the object of 
strife, but, instead, some attribute or attributes of Man personi- 
fied, occupying the same position with relation to the Virtues and 
Vices as does Man himself in the first two subdivisions. 

57 



58 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

In the last analysis this plot is the same as that in the class 
considered in the previous chapter, since all struggles between 
good and evil may be said to have their battle-ground in the na- 
ture of Man. But the difference, technically, between the alle- 
gory where Man is present in the body to be won or lost, and the 
allegory where he is dimly understood but not specified as the 
prize, is an essential one. In the former, Man, or a personifica- 
tion representing Man, is the central figure on the stage, and 
victory falls to that side which ultimately proves more attractive 
to him ; in the latter, we are interested in the fortunes of abstract 
good and evil, and the more interested we become in the strife the 
less likely are we to remember that Man is the spoil of the victor. 

I. Conflict for the Possession of Man Spiritual 

This subdivision is the most important section of the English 
Moralities. In the main, it is taken up with the struggles of 
Virtues and Vices to obtain the favor of Man. But another 
aspect of this strife, which is not so apparent, must also be 
taken into consideration here. This is the enmity of the three 
great powers — the World, the Flesh, and the Devil — towards 
Man, an aspect of the allegory influenced by Paul's exhortation 
to the Ephesians to " put on the whole armor of God " against 
the attacks of the devil. ^ This motive appears with the more 
important one in The Castle of Perseverajice, which, with the 
possible exception of the Pryde of Lyfe, is the earliest existing 
English Morality. 

The Castle of Perseverance ^ is not only one of the earliest 
of the existing Moralities ; it is one of the finest of its class. 
While most of the Moralities are disfigured, from an artistic 

^ Cf. Creizenach, I, 464. 

2 Edited by F. J. Furnivall and Alfred W. Pollard for the Early English 
Text Society, London, 1904. The play is usually dated about 1400, but Pollard 
here places it about 1425. 



THE CASTLE OF PERSEVERANCE 59 

point of view, by constant attempts to appeal to the vulgar class 
of spectators, this play holds itself sternly, from beginning to 
end, to the allegorical struggle in the soul. This gives it a 
solemnity and an earnestness of purpose not attained by any 
other Morality except Everyman. 

The two Vexillatores give a full account of the play that is 
to follow ; and a part of this explanation, which I shall quote, 
shows how closely the two motives are mingled here, the old 
combat of the Seven Deadly Sins against the Seven Cardinal 
Virtues, — first presented in the Psychomachia, and presented 
here as there in a series of single combats, — and the rivalry 
of the Virtues and the Vices for the favor of Man : 

The Castel of Perseverans, wanne Mankynde hath tan 

Wei armyd with vertus, & overcome all vycys, 

There the Good aungyl makyth ful mery thanne 

That Mankynde hath overcome his gostly enmys. 

The Badde Aungyl mornyth that he hath myssyd man : 

He callyth the Werld, the Fende, & the foule Flesch, I-wys, 

& all the sevene synnys to do that they canne 

to brynge Mankynd a-geyn to bale out of blys, 

With wronge. 
Pride a-saylyth Meknesse with all his myth : 
Ire, a-geyns Paciensse, ful fast ganne he fyth : 
Envye, a-geyn Charyte strywth ful ryth : 
but Covetyse a-geyns Largyte fytyth over longe. 
Coveytyse, Mankind euere covytyth for to qwell : 
he gaderith to hym Glotony, a-^eyns Sobymesse : 
Lecherye, with Chastyte ffytith ful fell, 
& Slawthe in Goddys seruyse, a-geyns Besynesse. 
Thus vycys a-geyns vertues fytyn ful snelle ; 
every buskith to brynge man to dystresse : 
but Penaunce & Confescion, with Mankynd wyl melle ; 
The vycys am ful lyckely the vertues to oppresse : 

sann dowte ; 
Thus in the Castel of good Perseverance 
Mankynd is maskeryd with mekyl varyaunce ; 
The Goode Aungyl & the Badde be euere at dystaunce : 
The Goode holdith hym Inne : the Badde wolde brynge hym owte. 



6o THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Before the appearance of Humanum Genus, or Mankind 
(I shall use the English names, which are those employed in 
the dialogue)^ the three kings, the World, the Flesh, and the 
Devil, speak from their respective scaffolds. The Worfd boasts 
of his power over the nations, procured for him by his "tresorer, 
Syr Coveytyse." The Devil tells of his anxiety to have Man- 
kind destroyed, and proclaims his intention of staying to effect 
this destruction. Lastly, the Flesh glories in the power of his 
followers, Glotony, Lechery, and Slawth, who are able to trick 
Mankind, 

Then Mankind enters, newly bom and naked, attended by 
his Good Angel and his Bad Angel. He laments his poverty 
and proneness to sorrow, and prays to Christ that he may follow 
his Good Angel. The two attendants, realizing that Mankind 
must now choose his way of life, present their respective argu- 
ments to him ; and, lured by promises of wealth and ease, he 
decides to follow his Bad Angel. 

The World, on his scaffold, addresses his followers. Lust, 
Lyking, and Foly. They all agree that the only real happiness 
obtainable on earth is in their service. Then the Bad Angel 
enters with Mankind, introduces him, and instructs the Vices 
how to look after him so that he may go at last to Hell with 
them. The Vices gladly take Mankind into their fellowship, 
and tell him of the riches and pleasures they have in store for 
him. The World extends a hearty welcome and gives Mankind 
a place on his scaffold. 

Bacbytere enters with a lengthy explanation of his character. 
The World and his followers go on with their plans for Man- 
kind, whom they will not abandon till he hangs high in Hell. 
The Good Angel makes an attempt to warn Mankind of his 
danger, but is abused and driven away by the Bad Angel. On 
the advice of the World, Mankind takes Bacbytere with him 
and goes to Coveytyse to receive the riches that have been 



THE CASTLE OF PERSEVERANCE 6 1 

promised him. Bacbytere (or Bacbytynge) introduces Mankind 
to Coveytyse, who receives him lovingly, gives him a seat on his 
scaffold, and proceeds to offer careful instructions about the way 
he is to act toward his fellow-men. Mankind is an apt pupil, 
and readily promises his instructor, 

where-so that I fare, be fenne or flod, 
I make a-vow, be Goddys blod, 
of Mankynde, getyth no man no good, 
but if he synge " si dedero." 

Then Coveytyse calls the attendants of the Flesh and the 
Devil and presents them to Mankind, and the Devil himself 
appears and instructs his followers, Pryde, Wrathe, and Envy, 
to stick by Mankind so that he may be bound fast in Hell when 
he dies. Mankind is now thoroughly under the influence of the 
World, the Flesh, the Devil, and the Seven Deadly Sins, and 
is ready to follow their advice implicitly. The Good Angel 
mourns and is again ridiculed by the Bad Angel. 

Schryfte appears and asks the Good Angel why he weeps, 
and the latter says it is on account of the disaffection of 
Mankind. Schryfte goes to try his powers of persuasion, but 
Mankind puts him off with 

thou art com al to sone ; 
therfore, Schryfte, be thi fay, 
goo forthe tyl on Good Fryday ! 
tente to thee thanne, wel I may ; 
I have now ellys to done. 

But Penance joins forces with Schryfte, and their arguments 
reduce Mankind to sorrow for his misdeeds. He calls on God 
for mercy and renounces his sins. Schryfte tells him he must 
avoid Foly and confess all his sins, which he does, receiving 
absolution from Schryfte. 

Feeling his weakness in the presence of temptation. Mankind 
wishes to be sheltered from the attacks of the Seven Deadly 



62 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Sins, and Schryfte sends him to the Castle of Perseverance, 
where the Seven Cardinal Virtues are waiting to receive him. 
Each gives her counsel in turn, and Mankind solemnly promises 
to abide by his instructions. 

The Bad Angel sends Bacbytynge to warn the World, the 
Flesh, and the Devil of Mankind's desertion, and to summon 
them to the Castle. Bacbytynge delivers his message to each 
of the kings, and each has his attendants soundly flogged for 
their carelessness, to the intense joy of Bacbytynge, who takes 
a strictly impartial delight in misery, wherever he can find it. 
Then the powers of evil make ready to storm the Castle. Man- 
kind, in his stronghold, hears of the coming attack and prays 
to Christ for strength. Then his Good Angel summons the 
Virtues to defend him. 

The Seven Deadly Sins, under the leadership of their cap- 
tains, the World, the Flesh, and the Devil, approach the Castle 
and order the Virtues to surrender Mankind. The demand is 
refused, and after several threats and arguments the assault 
begins. The Virtues shower down roses (the emblems of Christ's 
passion) upon the assailants, and repulse them in a series of 
single combats. The followers of the Devil advance first, and 
Pryde is beaten back by Meknesse, Envye by Charyte, and 
Wrathe by Paciensse. After the last-mentioned encounter Wrathe 

emerges crying, 

hyr rosys fel on me so scharpe 

that myn hed hangyth as an harpe : 

I dar neyther crye nor carpe, 

sche is so pacyent, 

— a sufficiently striking example of the effort to make allegorical 
action intelligible by the addition of literal comment. 

Flesh then urges on his followers, Glotony, Lecherye, and 
Slawthe ; but they are in turn repulsed, Glotony by Sobyrnesse 
(or Abstinence), Lecherye by Chastyte, and Slawthe by Besy- 
nesse (or Industry). 



THE CASTLE OF PERSEVERANCE 63 

As a last resort the World calls on his attendant Coveytyse 
to bear his banner to the front. Coveytyse advances and invites 
Mankind to leave the Castle and come with him. Largyte (Gen- 
erosity) curses Coveytyse and orders him off ; but he bids her 
hold her tongue, and renews his invitations to Mankind, who 
says that he is growing old, and finally agrees to leave the Castle 
and go with Coveytyse. As he departs, Meknesse, speaking for 
the Virtues, explains that Mankind has a free will and that it is 
no fault of theirs if he leaves them. Then the Virtues all lament 
Mankind's unfortunate choice. 

Coveytyse now instructs Mankind, promising him land and 
riches if he will guard them carefully and give nothing to the 
poor. Mankind readily agrees to all the conditions of Coveytyse. 
But presently Dethe enters, explains his mission, then goes and 
lays his stroke upon Mankind : 

now I kylle thee with myn knappe ! 
I reche to thee, Mankynde, a rappe 
to thyne herte rote. 

Mankind appeals to the World for help, but the World calls to 
a boy and turns Mankind's property over to him. Mankind re- 
proaches the World and Covej^yse, laments bitterly that he must 
go and leave all his riches to this boy whom he does not know, 
and dies. 

The Soul appears from under the bed where Mankind has 
breathed his last, and reproaches the Body. He then appeals 
to the Good Angel, who says that he must go to Hell unless 
Mercy will save him ; but the Bad Angel insists that the Soul 
must go to Hell with him. 

Finally the Four Daughters of God, Mercy, Rytwysnes, Pes, 
and Trewthe, enter and contend for the Soul. Mercy and Pes 
are eager to rescue him from the clutches of the Devil, but 
Rytwysnes and Trewthe argue sternly and logically that Man- 
kind has damned the Soul by his own free will. The sisters 



64 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

carry their debate before the throne of God, who at last decides 
in favor of Mercy and Pes, and sends his daughters to take 
Mankind from the Devil. They conduct Mankind before the 
throne, and he is given a seat on the right hand of God. 

The allegory, which is a picture of Man's progress through 
life, is simple and easily interpreted. Man is born into the world 
naked, defenceless, and innocent. Early in life he has to decide 
between good and evil courses, and, lured by the prospect of 
pleasure and worldly profit, he chooses the latter. Then he 
gives free rein to his lusts and appetites, and indulges in every 
kind of folly. But while engaged in this evil life he comes under 
the influence of religion. At first he hardens his heart, but the 
truths of religion are so impressed on him that he becomes filled 
with remorse for his past wickedness and cries to God for mercy. 
Then he confesses his sins, gets absolution, and resolves upon 
a better life. For many years he lives up to his purpose. His 
evil desires never leave him ; but, strong in the practice of virtue, 
he is empowered to resist them. At length he grows old, and 
while the lusts of his flesh have steadily grown weaker, he is 
becoming more prone to avarice, the peculiar vice of old age. 
His love for money finally becomes too strong to be resisted, 
and in his last years he indulges to the full his pleasure in 
hoarding riches. Death overtakes him while he is thus en- 
gaged ; and he has the bitter experience of realizing, in his 
last moments, that a stranger is to enjoy his wealth, while he 
must appear before God with only the record of his deeds upon 
earth. His soul appears before the judgment seat. In strict jus- 
tice God cannot pardon him ; but God's mercy is greater than 
his desire for justice, and the soul is received into heaven. 

The Castle of Perseverance is one of the few Moralities that 
depict the whole life of Man from infancy to old age or death ; ^ 

1 Cf. Brandl, Quellen des weltlichen Dramas in England vor Shakespeare, 
p. xl. 



MANKIND 65 

and as a natural consequence of this wider view of the hero's 
career it presents more stages than are usually found in plays 
of this class. The normal scheme of the Morality with a human 
hero may be said to include the following stages : State of Good- 
ness — Fall from Grace — Life in Sin — Repentance and Pardon. 
The Castle of Pcrsevc7'ancc, in effect, doubles this scheme, pre- 
senting the stages, State of Goodness — Fall from Grace — 
Life in Sin — Repentance and Pardon — Life of Goodness — 
Second Fall from Grace — Life in Sin — Final Repentance 
and Pardon. These stages, in different Moralities, are shifted 
and repeated in various ways, though on the whole the simple 
scheme of four stages is usually adhered to. Most of the Morali- 
ties in which Man is the hero depict, not the whole life as in The 
Castle of Perseverance, but one crucial period of temptation and 
struggle. Of the latter type is the play next to be considered. 

Mankhid^ belongs to the same allegorical class as The Castle 
of Perseverance, but otherwise it has almost nothing in common 
with the latter play. The Castle of Perseverance is pure in tone, 
with almost the sternness and severity of Greek tragedy, Maii- 
kind is remarkable mainly for the coarse jokes and vulgar antics 
of four rascals, like the Imagynacyon and Frewyl of Hycke- 
scomer, thinly veiled as personifications. The author is quite con- 
scious of the fact that he is writing a Morality, and takes care to 
preserve the traditional form and to insist on his moral ; but the 
religious teaching of the play is stilted and unnatural to the last 
degree, while the mad pranks of Mischeff and his crew are pic- 
tured with a zest and unction which must have gone far toward 
making the play a favorite with those who loved a joke more 
than a sermon. 

1 Between 1461-1485. In Manly, Vol. I. For a discussion of possible sources 
for the play see Mabel M. Keiller, " The Influence of Piers Plowman on the 
Macro Play of Mankind," Publications of the Mod. Lang. Assoc, Vol. XXVI, 
No. 2, and W. R. Mackenzie, "A New Source for Mankind," ibid., Vol. XXVII, 
No. I. 



66 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Mankind begins with a very stilted speech from Mercy on 
the Redemption, Presently relief appears in the person of 
Mischeff, who mocks and teases Mercy most unmercifully. The 
dignified soliloquizer expostulates, 

A-voyde, goode brother ! ye ben culpable 
To interupte thus my talkynge delectable. 

But Mischeff is unabashed by this stately rebuff, and soon he is 
reinforced by the arrival of his three friends. New Gyse, Now-a- 
days, and Nought. Mercy is subjected to a rattling fire of chaff; 
but finally the four Vices retire and leave him to continue his 
moralizing, which he does not fail to do, with the added point 
that their lewd conversation has given him : 

The goode new gyse now-a-days I will not dysalow ; 

I dyscomende the vycyouse gyse, I prey have me excusyde. 

Mankynde appears, soliloquizing on the goodness of God ; 
when, catching sight of Mercy, he greets him with reverence. 
They converse on spiritual topics ; then Mercy gives Mankynde 
careful directions for the guidance of his life and leaves him. 
New Gyse, Now-a-days, and Nought come in, but Mankynde 
pretends not to see them, and delves busily in the earth with 
his spade " to eschew ydullnes." The three Vices tantalize him, 
make certain coarse suggestions as to the best methods of cul- 
tivating his land, and finally he loses his temper and beats them 
with his spade till they are glad to get out of his way. After a 
virtuous soliloquy, and a solemn promise to the audience "ryght 
sone " to "reverte," Mankynde leaves the stage. 

Mischeff appears and is soon followed by New Gyse, Now-a- 
days, and Nought. They consult together, then call the devil, 
or Tityvullus, who enters roaring, "I com with my legges under 
me ! " .and tries to borrow a penny among the Vices, They 
have nothing to give him, however, so he sends them all out to 
steal and remains to formulate a plan for corrupting Mankynde. 



MANKIND 67 

The latter presently fulfills his promise to the audience and "re- 
vertes " to his labor with the spade ; but at last he grows tired, 
lies down, and goes to sleep. Tityvullus approaches the sleeper 
and whispers that Mercy has been hanged for stealing a mare, 
and that now he is to put his trust in New Gyse, Now-a-days, and 
Nought. 

After Tityvullus retires, Mischeff and his three companions 
return from their foraging expedition. Mankynde awakes and 
approaches them in friendly and apologetic fashion. Then Mis- 
cheff presides at a council over Mankynde and makes him 
repeat a solemn promise to go out and perform murders and 
other wicked deeds. The whole company is departing when 
Mercy appears and tries to stop Mankynde, but he is put aside 
and left to mourn the desertion of his pupil. 

After some time Mankynde returns, smitten with remorse 
for his sins, and calling for a rope to hang himself. The Vices 
have one ready for him, and New Gyse explains how one is 
hanged according to the new guise, almost hanging himself 
during the lesson. Then the Vices take to their heels and leave 
Mankynde grovelling in terror on the ground. Before he can 
destroy himself, however, Mercy returns and restores him to 
confidence and a state of grace. 

The allegorical teaching is rendered more general and less 
effective by the elusive nature of the vicious characters. Mis- 
cheff is the chief Vice and stands for "all sins generally" ; but 
his followers, New Gyse, Now-a-days, and Nought, do not stand 
for any specific vices, as we should expect them to do. They 
represent only, in a general way, the current vices of the day ; 
and this is explained to Mankynde when, after his regeneration, 
he tells Mercy how he has been deceived : 

Tityvilly, that goth invisibele, hynge hys nett be-fore my eye, 
And, by hys fantasticall visionys sedulously sowght, 
He Newgyse, Now-a-days, Nought causyd me to obey. 



68 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Mercy, in return, gives him a lecture upon the origin of temp- 
tation and evil, which are symbolized by his late companions : 

Ye haue iij adversarys, — he is master of them all, — 

That ys to sey, the dewell, the world, the flesh : & I the tell 

That Newgyse, Now-a-days & Nought, the world we may them call; 

And propyrlly Titiuilly syngnyfieth the fend of hell : 

The flesh, — that ys the vnclene concupisens of your body ; 

These be your iij gostly enmys in whom ye have put your confidens : 

Thei browt yow to Myscheffe to conclude your temperull glory. 

As yt hath be schewyd this worschypfyll audiens.^ 

That is, New Gyse, Now-a-days, and Nought stand in a general 
way for the temptations of the world and the flesh, which assail 
the heart of Man and lure him away from virtue. The third of 
the trio of " gostly enmys " is represented less vaguely. The 
devil, or Tityvullus, here occupies an unusually important role, 
and does a great deal of the work usually assigned to the chief 
Vice, — one of the two cases where this happens in the Mo- 
ralities.^ His regular role is to look on and approve when Man 
falls into sin, or to give directions to the Vices, who are his 
servants ; but here he appears as the actual tempter of Man, 

Mercy is the only representative of goodness in the play, but 
he is a figure of sufficient importance to carry the day against 
the combined forces of evil without occasioning any suspicion 
of inconsistency in the outcome. The most potent of the Four 
Daughters of God, who were introduced repeatedly in mediaeval 
allegory, was Mercy. The Four Daughters symbolized the four 
attributes of God ; that is, righteousness, peace, mercy, and 
truth, which hitherto it had been the convention to represent 
as women. In the present play, however, there are obvious 
reasons why the divine quality of mercy, if it was to be repre- 
sented here at all, should be personified as a man rather than 
as a woman. But with this slight discrepancy Mercy is here the 

1 Lines 869-872, 876-884. 

2 The other case is in the Morality Wisdom, Who is Christ. 



MANKIND 69 

figure that had become familiar to mediaeval readers in many a 
debate concerning the fate of man. That he has this precise 
significance he himself indicates in his conversation with Man- 
kynde toward the close of the play, 

Mank. The egall lustyse of God wyll not permytte sych a synfuU wrech 
To be reuyuyd & restoryd a-geyn ; yt were impossibyll. 

Mercy. The Justice of God wyll as I wyll, as hym-sylfe doth pre-cyse : 
Nolo mortem peccatoris, inquit, yff he wyll be reducyble. 

Matik. Than, mercy, good Mercy ! What ys a man wythowt Mercy ? 
Lytyll ys our parte of paradyse where Mercy ne were. 
Good Mercy, excuse the inevetabyll obieccion of my gostly enmy : 
The prowerbe seyth, the trewth tryith the sylfe. Alas, I have mech care. 

Mercy. God wyll not make 30U preuy on-to his last iugement : 
lustyce & Equite xall be fortyfyid, I wyll not denye ; 
Trowthe may not so cruelly precede in hys streyt argument 
But that Mercy schall rewle the mater with-owte controuersaye.^ 

The significance of the play, then, is this : Man, trying to 
lead a clean and virtuous life, is constantly tempted by the 
fashionable vices of the day and is hampered, as well, by the 
original sin in his own nature. He succeeds for a time in over- 
coming temptation, but when the devil puts false and evil 
thoughts in his heart he becomes confused and unable to dis- 
criminate between right and wrong. Then he falls into vicious 
ways and persists therein, refusing to avail himself of God's 
mercy, which is extended to all men. But eventually he comes 
to himself. Remorse for his sins takes hold on him, and in 
despair he meditates suicide. He is preserved, however, from 
this fate by a realization that God's mercy is infinite, and is 
extended even to the sinner who, in strict justice, should be 
sentenced to eternal punishment. With a grateful knowledge 
of his indebtedness to God he now resolves on a life of piety 
for the future, and definitely renounces the sins in which he has 
wasted so many years of his life. 

1 Lines 824-836. 



70 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Nature} " a goodly interlude " by Henry Medwall, is like 
The Castle of Perseverance in that it presents a picture of life 
as a whole rather than of one period. It is not, however, so 
careful on this point as is the latter play. The Castle of Per- 
severance presents Man immediately after his birth, conducts 
him through life, and after his death accompanies him to the 
judgment seat of God. It is a complete biography within a 
limited scope. Nature presents Man first as an infant, or so 
we are led to suppose by the fact that he is naked and is ac- 
companied by Innocence ; there is no specific mention of infancy. 
At the close of the play Man has reached old age, but not the 
end of his days. This point is connected with another marked 
difference between the two plays. Natitre is noticeable for an 
almost complete lack of religious instruction, while in The Castle of 
Perseverance a high religious tone is sustained throughout. The 
teaching in Nature is directed entirely toward the guidance of 
life in this world ; and to end the play with the death of Man 
— which would necessitate a great deal of moralizing on the 
next life — would be noticeably inconsistent. The Moralities 
are not always remarkable for dramatic consistency, and when 
one encounters a real exhibition of this quality one is tempted 
to make the most of it. 

The play might seem, at first, to belong more properly to 
the following subclass, where the conflict is for the mind of 
Man. But in spite of an almost complete lack of religious 
teaching there can be no question that the allegorical struggle 
is waged over the soul of the hero. This aspect is decided by 
the very nature of the abstractions taking part in the conflict. 
The temptations assailing Man are from the Seven Deadly Sins 
and other Vices of the same general character, and the attempt 

1 Between 1486-1500. In ^' Lost" Tttdor Plays, ed. by J. S. Farmer. On the 
probable source of this play in Lydgate's Reason and Sensuality, see a forth- 
coming article by the present author. 



NATURE 71 

is to lead him from a life of uprightness and virtue, not from a 
life of study. The representative of goodness, to be sure, is 
Reason, who in other plays figures as a guardian of the mind, 
not of the soul. But Reason pitted against Ignorance and Tedi- 
ousness has a prize in view which, allegorically, is very different 
from the prize to be won when Reason is pitted against the 
Seven Deadly Sins. Obviously, in the former case the prize is 
the mind, in the latter the soul. 

Lady Nature, at the beginning of the play, makes a long 
speech to Man, and ends by sending him on his way with 
Reason and Sensuality to guide him, and Innocency, his nurse, 
to wean him from the appetite for vice. Sensuality urges Nature 
not to send Reason with Man, and to allow him to be the only 
guide, but Nature insists on her original scheme and leaves them 
to get along as best they can. Reason and Sensuality then fall to 
disputing, and Reason stoutly maintains his superiority, though 
he has more lately come to Man's service. " Lo," he says, 

this is it that doth him (Man) dignify, 
And causeth him to be reputed so excellent. 
And of all this the chief doer am I, 
Which from Heaven into earth by God am sent, 
Only for that cause and final intent 
That I should this, his creature, demean and guide 
For the season that he doth in this world abide. 
Now compare thy virtues and mine together, 
And say which is the worthier of them two. 

But Sensuality is impervious to any sharply drawn distinctions 
between virtue and vice, and exclaims. 

Which is the worthier ? forsooth ! I trow neither : 
We be good fellows. 

Man, with an indulgent eye to the needs of thick skulls among 
the audience, cries 

O, blessed Lord ! what manner strife is this 
Atwixt my reason and sensuality ! 



72 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

He finally puts an end to the argument by bidding Sensuality 
be tongue-tied till Reason has done speaking. Then they all 
proceed on their journey and come at last to the World, who 
gives them a hearty welcome and offers Man some clothing. 
Man, who is naked, says that the garment of innocence is 
enough for him, and in this Innocency supports him. But the 
World insists, and Man finally accepts the clothing and puts 
it on. The World then brings forward Worldly Affection, 
whom he recommends to Man as a good person to have in his 
service, along with Sensuality. On the advice of all these friends 
Man dismisses Innocency,^ and places himself chiefly under the 
guidance of Sensuality. 

Worldly Affection goes out to look after Man's affairs, leaving 
his master with Sensuality. Soon they are joined by Pride, who 
confides to Sensuality that he is very anxious to enter Man's 
service ; then, when Man comes forward, he flatters him adroitly, 
says that his name is Worship, and is accepted as a servant. 
He shows his anxiety for his master's welfare by warning him 
earnestly against Reason — the same device that was used in 
Mankind to lure Man away from virtue : 

Marry, fie on him, knave ! 
It were better the hangman were in his grave 
Than ever the lewd fool should have 
The governance of you. 

Sensuality then takes Man out to a tavern to enjoy himself, 
and presently returns joyfully to announce to Pride and Worldly 
Affection that his master has taken up with Margery, a harlot, 
and has employed the six kinsmen of Pride, who have all 
changed their names " for to blear his eye." Covetise has 

* The sex of Innocency remains a matter of some doubt. She is spoken of 
at first as a woman (p. 59), and later, when Man at the World's request decides 
to dismiss her, as a man (p. 63) ; and, to round out this information, Sensuality 
adds, " He is but a boy " (p. 64). 



NATURE 73 

become Worldly Policy ; Wrath, Manhood ; Envy, Disdain ; 
Gluttony, Good Fellowship ; Sloth, Ease ; and Lechery, Lust. 

Lo ! these be fair names, parde ! 
Both good and honest, as seemeth me : 
As for their conditions, what they be, 
Ye know well. 

"Very just," answers Worldly Affection, 

I know their conditions on the best wise 
If they still keep their old guise. 

" Yes," answers Sensuality, " that they do, on warrantise." 
Worldly Affection marvels that Covetousness should be accepted, 
and Sensuality explains that, though Man has no inclination to 
Covetousness now, he will follow him " when his head waxeth 
hoar." 1 

On Man's return from the tavern he is seized with misgivings 
as to what Reason will think when he sees him in this condition. 
Finally he concludes that he has followed Sensuality and Worldly 
Affection too long, and decides to seek Shamefacedness.^ The 
latter at once puts in an appearance and promises to come to 
Man whenever he wants him. At this point Reason re-appears, 
Man confesses how much he needs his help, and Reason advises 
him to call on God for grace. 

This ends the first part of the play. The second part, while 
a direct continuation of the foregoing, is so arranged that it 
could be produced as a sequel. This part of the play has not 
very much point. It consists largely of meetings and conversa- 
tions between different pairs of Vices, while the hero himself 
plays only a small part. The tame presentation of the return to 
sin and final conversion should be compared with the stirring 
depiction of these stages in The Castle of Perseverance. 

^ See p. 64, above. 

2 This play is exceptional in that the human hero decides to change his 
mode of life without the intervention of abstract advisers. 



74 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Reason and Man converse, then Reason goes out, promising 
to return whenever Man needs him.^ Next, SensuaHty comes 
in, corrtplains of Man's neglect, and weeps. Man begins to feel 
now that he has been having rather a dull time of it with Reason, 
and is easily persuaded to call back his old servants. In the 
company of Worldly Affection and Bodily Lust he goes out to 
enjoy himself with Margery. On his return he retires with 
Pride to inspect the new apparel which the latter has procured 
for him. Coming in again he encounters Gluttony, who fails to 
recognize him, he is so fallen away from living on Reason's diet. 
To amend this condition he retires with Gluttony and Wrath. 

Then comes a bit of by-play to show the impartiality of Envy 
in creating trouble. Pride enters and encounters Envy ; the 
latter warns him that Man has tired of his services and is about 
to dismiss him. Pride, in alarm, takes to his heels, to the im- 
mense delight of Envy, who recounts the exploit to Sensuality, 
admitting that he had no cause to injure Pride. It is simply 
his nature to destroy anyone in power. 

But Sensuality has sad news to give in return. Age, he says, 
has come, bringing Reason with him ; and, seeing this. Glut- 
tony and Bodily Lust have left the service of Man. The speak- 
ers, alarmed for their own positions, rush out to hold a council 
with their friends ; then Man, in a very penitent state of mind, 
enters conversing with Reason. He has definitely resigned his 
evil courses, and is presently joined by Charity, Patience, Good 

1 Great pains are taken in this play to show that Man may be under the 
influence of a personified quality, even though not constantly attended by 
that abstraction. Reason, as he leaves, says to Man (p. 91) : 

Now, fare ye well ! for I must be absent 
As for a season : and for your comfort 
whensoever ye call me I shall to you resort. 

And, later on, when Man falls from grace Bodily Lust assures him (p. 94) : 

Sir, ye know well that ye and I 
Be never much asunder 
Albeit I be from you among. 



MA GNYFYCENCE J 5 

Occupation, Liberality, Abstinence, and Chastity. With this 
imposing bodyguard of Virtues he is left to complete his life 
on earth. 

The allegory may be interpreted thus : Man from his birth 
is endowed with reason on the one hand, and on the other with 
the natural desires of sense, which are necessary, and are useful 
so long as they are subordinated to reason. He is at first per- 
fectly innocent, but his innocence disappears as soon as he 
begins to wear clothes, in accordance with the fashions of the 
world. This is the first step. Having begun to conform to 
worldly usages, he finds it easy and natural to follow them up, 
and ends by giving full sway to all his lusts and his desires for 
pleasure, and ceasing to follow the dictates of his reason. But 
he has not become completely depraved, and in the midst of 
his carousing a sense of shame comes to him. He decides to 
abandon his evil habits and to act as reason dictates. For some 
time he perseveres in his good resolves, but his bad habits have 
such a hold upon him that he finds a life of virtue decidedly 
dull and pines for his old pleasures. This is the beginning of 
his second downfall. He slides again into his vicious habits, and 
is not reclaimed until, with advancing years, he loses his desire 
for worldly pleasure. He then decides, finally, to spend his last 
years in virtue and uprightness. The allurements of the world 
and the flesh have ceased to attract him, and the impulse to avarice 
is quelled by the constant practice of charity and liberality. 

In Magnyfycence} by John Skelton, we have, as the human 
hero to be striven for by Virtues and Vices, not Mankind in 
general, but a special type of man, — the prince characterized 
by munificence. The hero goes by the abstract name of Mag- 
nyfycence, but from the beginning of the play he is shown to 

1 Ramsay [Skelton^s ^^ Mac^jiyfycence" pp. xxi-xxv) shows that this play was 
probably written between Sept. 14, 1515 and Aug. 13, 1516, or certainly 
between the former date and October, 1518. 



76 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

be a great king of the earth, ^ not an abstraction ; and, but for 
the presence of some Vices whom I shall specify further on, 
he would be the regular highly universalized type figure repre- 
senting mankind. 

The fact that the play is supposed to have been written as a 
political satire would seem at first to indicate that it should be 
placed among the Political Moralities of Class IV. But this 
political element is the underlying current of the play, not its 
avowed purpose. In technical structure it attaches itself to the 
plays of the present class, and the political meaning which the 
author probably intended must be supplied by the readers or 
spectators. The same is true of the Satyre of the Thrie Estaites, 
Part I, which also falls in this division. 

The play opens with a monologue by Felicite, or Welthfull 

Felicite, as he calls himself, that is, happiness resulting from 

wealth. He tells what care must be practised in order to obtain 

happiness from wealth. Liberte joins him, and the two fall into 

a formal debate as to whether they can co-exist. Felicite thinks 

that Liberte should be restrained by the "chayne of Continence," 

but Liberte himself is of the opinion that he should be without 

restraint. Measure comes in, and is chosen by both as arbiter. 

His view of the question is that 

Welthe without Measure wolde here himselfe to bolde : 
Lyberte without Measure prove a thynge of nought ; 

1 It has never been questioned that Skelton intended the play as a poUti- 
cal satire, but opinion has varied as to the direct object of the satire. Ten 
Brink {Gesch. des engl. Lit., II, 480) simply asserts that Magnyfycence, the 
hero, is an allegorical portrait of Henry VIII in his early years of lavish 
expenditure. Hooper (" Skelton's Magnyfycence and Cardinal Wolsey," 
Modem Language Notes, XVI, 213) identifies Magnyfycence with Wolsey. 
Koelbing (Zur Characteristik John Skeltons, Stuttgart, 1904, pp. 32, 151) 
thinks that the play had a mildly satirical bearing on Henry, but he admits 
nothing more than a very general application. Ramsay (Skelton's " Magnyfy- 
cence," pp. cvii-cxxviii) goes into details to show that Magnyfycence is Henry, 
and to identify the Vices who plot the ruin of Henry with Wolsey and his 
followers. 



MAGNYFYCENCE 77 

ergo, Measure is the one that should rule. Felicite assents to 
this, but Lyberte has decided objections and is brought to a 
very reluctant assent only by the superior arguments of Measure. 

Magnyfycence now appears. Measure offers himself as chief 
counsellor to Magnyfycence, and his two companions for subor- 
dinate positions under him. Magnyfycence places himself under 
the control of Measure, who now considers his future assured, 
and makes plans to guide his master with the assistance of 
Felicite and Lyberte. Lyberte makes a last insistent plea for a 
free hand, and finally Magnyfycence becomes angry and sends 
him away to be placed in the school of Measure. 

Fansy breaks in rudely, introducing himself as Largesse. He 
is so impudent that Magnyfycence becomes angry with him ; 
but he escapes dismissal by producing a letter, purporting to be 
from Sad Cyrcumspeccyon, Magnyfycence is at once mollified, 
reads the letter, then falls into friendly conversation with Fansy, 
and concludes by taking him into his service. Before they depart 
from the palace, Fansy drops a sly hint that, though Measure 
may do very well for merchants, he is not the sort of companion 
for a king. 

Counterfet Countenaunce comes in to wait for his friend 

Fansy, and in the meantime explains his place in the scheme 

of things : 

For Counterfet Countenaunce knowen am I ; 
This world is full of my Foly. 
I set not by him a fly 
That can not counterfet a lye, 
Swere, and stare, and byde therby, 
And countenaunce it clenly, 
And defend it manerly. 

His long explanation is brought to an end by the reappearance 
of Fansy with Crafty Conveyaunce, who, having given out his 
name as Sure Surveyaunce, has been received by the king. 
Fansy tells of his luck at court, where he is known as Largesse, 



78 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

and has been made a knight. In the course of the conversation 
he lets drop the fact that the letter by which he has won his 
way to court was forged by Counterfet Countenaunce. The three 
rogues then attempt to hatch some good plan by which to over- 
throw Measure at court, and are almost in despair until Coun- 
terfet Countenaunce remembers his friend Cloked Colusyon, 
who will be able to help them. The wished-for friend at this 
moment puts in a convenient appearance, disguised as a priest ; 
and a plan is quickly made for all four to get into the king's 
favor, ruin Measure, and set Lyberte free. In order to be well 
received it is, of course, necessary that they shall all assume at- 
tractive names ; so Counterfet Countenaunce and Cloked Colu- 
syon, who have not yet taken that precaution, change their 
names respectively to Good Demeynaunce and Sober Sadnesse. 
Cloked Colusyon is left to wait while the other three go to 
secure a position for him at court, and this interval he employs 
in giving a not uncalled-for explanation of his character and 

habits : 

Double Delynge and I be one ; 

Craftynge and haftynge contryued is by me ; 

I can dyssemble, I can bothe laughe and grone ; 

Playne Delynge and I can never agre ; 

But Dyvysyon, Dyssencyon, Dyrysyon, — these thre 

And I am counterfet of one mynde and thought. 

By the menys of Myschyef to bryng all thynges to nought. 

These frank confessions are rudely interrupted by Courtly 
Abusyon, a merry rascal who comes in singing, and attired 
" after the cowrtly maner." He has all the latest styles in 
clothing and manners ; and, when Fansy returns to announce 
complete success at court, and the freedom of Lyberte, he tells 
Courtly Abusyon that there is a place for him also, if he will 
change his name to Lusty Pleasure. To complete the list of 
office-seekers, Foly, Fansy's brother, appears, leading a mangy 
cur, which he presently trades off for a fine hawk that Fansy is 



MAGNYFYCENCE 79 

carrying on his wrist, and at the same time exchanges his purse 
with an old buckle in it for his brother's purse containing twenty 
marks. Foly, in fact, is no fool, as he is quite ready to admit : 

Nay, it is I that foles can make ; 
For be he cayser or be he kynge. 
To felowshyp with Foly I can hym brynge. 

He arranges for a position at court, and, because he " hathe a 
full dry soule," insists on getting charge of the cellar. 

Finally Magnyfycence himself appears with Felicite and 
Lyberte, who renew their old argument about personal superi- 
ority. This time the king settles the dispute differently by 
handing Felicite over to Fansy and Lyberte to be controlled. 
He has now reached the height of his power, and loudly pro- 
claims that Alexander, Caesar, Charlemagne, and all the other 
great rulers were as nothing compared to him. 

This is the turning point in his career. He has dismissed 
Measure with insults, and has elevated to power all the advisers 
who are opposed to Measure. Now, as he amuses himself by 
listening to the senseless jargon of Foly, suddenly Fansy bursts 
in with a scared face to report that the king's favorites have 
made away with Felicite and have brought Adversity to court. 
He has hardly delivered his news when Adversity comes in. 
Fansy and Foly take to their heels ; and Adversity, after re- 
proaching the king bitterly, beats him down, strips him, and 
hands him over to Poverte, a diseased wretch, who rebukes him 
further, then lays him on a couch and hobbles away to beg. 
Lyberte, Crafty Conveyaunce, and Cloked Colusyon come and 
exult over the prostrate Magnyfycende, tell him of the wealth 
they have gained by despoiling him, then depart. 

At last Dyspare approaches the king and recommends suicide. 
Myschefe follows with a knife and halter, and seconds Dyspare. 
But when the king is about to slay himself they run off, and 
Good Hope comes in just in time to snatch away the knife. 



8o THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

He comforts the king, and is joined by Redresse, who sends 
for Circumspeccyon, in the meantime putting fresh garments 
on the naked monarch. When Circumspeccyon appears he is 
anxious to know the cause of the late misfortune, and is told by 
Magnyfycence that it was a letter from him that caused all the 
trouble. Then the truth comes out about Fansy's forgery at the 
beginning of his career. Magnyfycence is now well lectured on 
the foolishness of trusting himself in the hands of dishonest 
advisers ; and, finally. Perseverance comes in and completes 
his change of heart. 

The Vices accomplishing the downfall of the hero are here 
more varied than usual. They represent not only the impulses 
toward evil in man's nature, but also malignant forces from 
without ; that is, the machinations of selfish and scheming com- 
panions. This is demanded, of course, for the political applica- 
tion of the lesson. We may divide the Vices, then, into two 
classes : Lyberte, Fansy, Foly, and Myschefe, representing de- 
structive forces within the mind of the hero ; and Counterfet 
Countenaunce, Crafty Conveyance, Cloked Colusyon,and Courtly 
Abusyon as malignant forces from without. The Virtues, also, 
are of two kinds : Measure, Good Hope, Circumspeccyon, and 
Perseverance, representing forces for good in man's nature ; 
and Felicite (wealth wisely used) and Redresse representing 
beneficent forces from without. Adversyte, Dyspare, and Pov- 
erte are neither Vices nor Virtues, but represent trials sent by 
God for the schooling of man. They may be called Agents of 
Retribution. 

The allegory, then, must be interpreted thus : A king begins 
his reign in prosperity. He has abundance of wealth, which he 
determines to use wisely and in moderation, restraining the 
extravagant impulses of his nature. But his imagination dwells 
on the pleasures that his wealth can obtain for him, and soon 
he persuades himself that these fancies are the dictates of reason, 



MAGNYFYCENCE 8i 

and that restraint in expenditure is to be practised by tradesmen 
and not by kings. In this he is encouraged by his flattering 
courtiers, 1 who count on the generous and confiding nature of 
their king to assist them in pocketing most of his wealth. They 
deceive him systematically, and lead him from one foolish ex- 
travagance to another, .until they have obtained all his wealth. 
Then they desert him suddenly, and the king is left alone in 
abject poverty. He is in despair and meditates suicide. But 
hope is not quite dead in his heart. He gets new courage and 
decides to make a fresh start, profiting by his recent lesson. ^ 
Discovering that the flatterers of his court have deceived him 
and have been the cause of much of his extravagance, he is 
confirmed in the determination to guide his affairs moderately 
and carefully in the future. 

The special satirical application of this Morality to an earthly 
king suffering from dishonest courtiers is made by the presence 
of the Vices Counterfet Countenaunce, Crafty Conveyaunce, 
Cloked Colusyon, and Courtly Abusyon. If these were removed, 
Magnyfycence would become simply the representative of man- 
kind, striven for by the remaining personifications of the play. 
But it should be noted that, as in the later Morality by Lyndsay, 
these special Vices are the ones chiefly responsible for the down- 
fall of the hero, while the regular Vices merely pave the way 
for their operations. 

^ In the case of such characters as Counterfet Countenaunce and his com- 
panions, representing human forces from without acting upon the hero, it is 
hard to avoid the confusion of personified abstraction and type figure. These 
figures stand here at first for flattery, dishonest practices, etc., at court ; but 
toward the end of the play, when they abscond after robbing the king, they 
are nothing but type figures, representing self-seeking and dishonest courtiers. 
The same sort of characters figures prominently in Lyndsay's Satyre of the 
TTirie Estaites. 

^ In this picture of downfall and despair, followed by redress, the author 
reverts from his specialized treatment of a king to the common type of Morality 
where Man is the subject. 



82 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Mundus et Infans ^ belongs to the group of biographical plays 
which conduct the hero from childhood to old age. Like Nature, 
it refrains from specifying that the hero has just been born at 
the beginning of the play, and concludes before his death. The 
play has only five characters and is exceedingly simple in con- 
struction, — so simple that the audience is called upon to im- 
agine the hero as passing through fourteen years of his life 
while he makes two short speeches explaining his growth and 
character. The lesson is of the most elementary and general 
kind. It instructs mankind to shun the seven deadly sins, follow 
the dictates of conscience, and persevere in a life of piety. 

The play opens with the World seated on his throne, address- 
ing the audience. He explains himself : 

For all the Worlde wyde, I wote well, is my name ; 
All rychesse, redely, it renneth in me, 
All pleasure worldely, both myrthe and game. 
My-selfe semely in sale I send with you to be, 

and commands them all to follow him. The Chylde^ enters, 

1 Printed 1522. In Manly, Vol. I. See the Ptiblications of the Modem Lan- 
guage Association of America, Sept. 1908 (Vol. XXIII, No. 3; New Series, 
Vol. XVI, No. 3) for an article by H. N. MacCracken, showing by a presenta- 
tion of direct parallels the relation between Mundus et Infans and the earlier 
poem, The Mirror of the Periods of Mattes Life, or Bids of the Virtues and Vices for 
the Soul of Man (placed by Dr. Furnivall at 1430, and by others at a later date). 

2 There is some confusion as to the age of the] Chylde at his first appear- 
ance. From his opening speech one would surmise that he had just been born : 

Fourty wekes I was frely fedde 
Within my moders wombe ; 
Full oft of dethe she was adred 
Whan that I sholde parte her from. 

Now into the Worlde she hatha me sent, 
Poore and naked as ye may se ; 
I am not worthely wrapped nor went, 
But powerly prycked in poverte (p. 355). 

But a minute later when he joins the Worlde and is asked his name, he 
answers . j ^^^.^ ^^^^ ^^^ withouten blame ; 

But ofte tyme my moder, in her game, 
Called me Dalyaunce (p. 355), 



MUNDUS ET INFANS 83 

" poore and naked." He prays to Christ for grace and laments 
that he was conceived and born in sin. Then he approaches 
the Worlde, who performs the characteristic act of clothing him, 
to rob him of innocence, gives him a suitable name, or rather 
list of names — Love, Lust, and Lykynge — and sends him off to 
enjoy himself for seven years. When he returns to the Worlde, 
the latter changes his name to Manhode, dubs him knight, and 
charges him to worship above all things the seven kings, Pryde, 
Envy, Wrathe, Couvetous, Stouthe, Glotony, and Lechery. 

The World now retires, leaving Manhode to make short work 
of the next seven years. The newly dubbed knight rants about 
the stage and actually succeeds in out- H eroding Herod : 

Every man is a-ferde whan I do on hym stare, 
For all mery medell-erthe maketh mencyon of me ; 

Yet all is my hande-werke, both by downe and by dale. 
Bothe the see and the lande and foules that fly ; 
And I were ones moved, I tell you in tale, 
There durst no sterre stere, that stondeth in the sky. 

which indicates that he has been born some time before. Later the Worlde 
gives him a new name, and tells him : 

And also I gyve to the a name 
And clepe the Wanton, in every game, 
Tyl xiij ycrc be come and gone, — 
And then come agajme to me (p. 356). 

When the Chylde is next approaching the Worlde he explains to the 

■ But, syrs, whan I was seven yere of age, 

I was sent to the Worlde to take wage, 
And this seven yei-e I have ben his page 
And kept his commaundment (p. 357). 

Then as he approaches the Worlde : 

Hayle, lorde of grete honour ! 

This vii yere I have served you in hall and boure 

With all my trewe entent (p. 357). 

The obvious conclusion, then, is that the Chylde is seven years old at the 
beginning of the play. The first seven years of his life are evidently regarded 
as a negligible period of infancy, or as the commonly specified period of 
innocence. 



84 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

These powers, and many others, he has attained by the friend- 
ship of the seven kings, the Seven Deadly Sins. 

To this mighty personage appears Conscyence, ruminating on 
his unpopularity with mankind. The doughty Manhode is at 
first inclined to take a high hand with Conscyence, but the 
latter's mysterious utterances arouse his curiosity. When he is 
accused of not knowing Conscyence he exclaims, " Conscyence! 
what the devyll, man, is he ? " 

" A techer of the spyrytualete," answers Conscyence. 

" Spyrytualyte ! " shouts the astounded Manhode. " What 
the devyll may that he?" 

Conscyence proceeds, gently but firmly, to argue Manhode 
from his allegiance to the seven kings. Manhode is stubborn, 
but he is slowly forced to resign one king after another, till they 
come to the seventh, Covetous. Here Manhode puts his foot 
down for good and all. He has, under compulsion, resigned six 
of his kings, but when it comes to forcing him from Covetous 
his teacher is going a bit too far. Conscyence, however, proves 
equal to any emergency. He permits Manhode to retain Cove- 
tous, and then outlines the duties which yet remain : 

Coveyte ye to sle no man ; 

Ne do no lechery with no woman ; 

Your neyboures good take not be no waye ; 

And all false-wytnesse ye must denaye ; 

Neyther ye must not covete no mannes wyfe, 
Nor no good that hym be-lythe, — 
This covetys shall kepe you out of stryfe : 
These ben the commaundments ten. 

Conscyence gives him special and repeated warnings against 
" folye," which, he says, includes the seven deadly sins. Then, 
having brought his pupil to a chastened and submissive frame 
of mind, he leaves him to his growth in grace, 

Manhode has barely time to give utterance to the virtuous 



MUNDUS ET INFANS 85 

resolution to hold Conscyence for his king in future when 
Folye joins him in a jocund frame of mind. Manhode chal- 
lenges him in rather arrogant style, and Folye insinuates that, 
among his other accomplishments, he is a " coryous buckler- 
player." " Wyll thou assaye .? " he adds. Manhode reflects that 
Conscyence would not approve of a brawl, but Folye's taunt that 
he has a " false herte " overcomes his virtue, and they go at 
each other. After a stiff bout, in which Manhode seems to have 
the upper hand, the two sit down to friendly conversation.^ When 
Manhode learns Folye's name he suddenly realizes that this 
must be the person that Conscyence warned him against. But 
Folye is a plausible rogue and has many tempting schemes on 
hand, so that Manhode is soon induced to accept him for a 
servant. He still has some lingering fear of Conscyence ; so 
Folye removes the last traces of this by dubbing him Shame. 
After the addition of this name Manhode is ready to accompany 
Folye to his haunts, and the two march off, while Folye explains 
the significance of this act to the audience : 

Manh. Folye, go before and teche me the waye. 

Folye. Come after, Shame, I the praye, 
And Conscyence clere ye cast awaye. 
{Aside) Lo, syrs, this Folye techeth aye. 
For where Conscyence cometh with his cunn)nige, 
Yet Folye full f etely shall make hym blynde : 
Folye before and Shame behynde, — 
Lo, syrs, thus fareth the worlde alwaye. 

As they are leaving they encounter Conscyence, but the 
newly christened Shame brushes him aside impatiently and 
proceeds on his way. Conscyence laments, and goes to seek 
Perseveraunce. 

. 1 This victory has no allegorical significance, since Manhode, after getting 
the better of Folye, immediately becomes reconciled to him. Contrast with this 
the allegorical duel between Just and Lust in the Trial of Treasure (see p. 122, 
below). Here Just defeats Lust and drives him out; then the allegorical sig- 
nificance of the fight is commented on. 



86 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

At last Manhode appears, old and broken by vicious living, 
and going by the name of Age. He bitterly repents his follies, 
and longs for Death to take him away from his sickness and 
despair. But Perseveraunce comes to his relief, hails him by 
his former name of Manhode, and brings him to a state of true 
contrition for his sins. Then he gives him the last of a long 
and varied list of names, and as Repentance our human hero 
concludes the play in hopeful conversation with Perseveraunce. 

The characters are all easily placed in relation to Infans, who 
represents mankind. Mundus, as has already been explained, is 
one of the three great inimical forces seeking to lure mankind 
to eternal punishment. Folye is the embodiment of tendencies 
toward sin in the heart of man. He represents, for the sake of 
economy in the play, the seven deadly sins.^ Conscyence and 
Perseveraunce are internal forces for good. 

The interpretation follows easily : Man is born in sin. In 
early childhood he comes in contact with the world, and practises 
all the follies regularly indulged in by worldlings. During his 
youth he sins chiefly by yielding to his lusts and desires for light 
pleasures ; but when he comes to manhood his vices are of a 
sterner quality and comprise the seven deadly sins. His con- 
science, however, begins to trouble him. He fights persistently 
against these misgivings and tries hard to persuade himself that 
he may retain some of his pet vices and still lead a godly life. 
But his conscience is inexorable, and he feels impelled to resign 
all his vices, one by one. He has not yet cultivated the strength 
of will, however, to persevere in a good life ; and when tempta- 
tion comes to him he yields to it, stills the voice of conscience, 
and returns to his old sins. After many years, when he is old and 
broken, he is able again to withdraw from his life of wickedness, 
and this time with the strength to persevere in virtue to the end. 

1 On p. 358, Manhode (Infans grown up) asks Conscyence what he means 
by "folye." Conscyence, in reply, enumerates the seven deadly sins, and 
concludes " These seven synnes I call folye." 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTAITES 8/ 

Of all the Moralities which we shall have to consider Sir 
David Lyndsay's Satyre of the Thrie Estaites'^ is the most 
intricate and the most difficult to interpret allegorically. This 
is due to the wide political and national significance of the play. 
Lyndsay was not content merely to present an allegory to in- 
struct kings in private virtues. The King, or Rex Humanitas, 
is the hero ; but the play, as it goes on, broadens out to a 
merciless satire on the vices, religious and political, of Scotland, 
and finally presents a detailed and constructive scheme of reform. 
Leaving out of account the interludes, which have scarcely any 
allegorical action, we must consider the two parts of the play as 
two separate allegories, the first falling in the present class, the 
second to be considered with the plays of political and religious 
controversy under Class IV. 

Diligence speaks the prologue, giving a general account of 
the play to follow. Then the hero. Rex Humanitas, appears and 
humbly announces his good intentions regarding the realm. He 
is joined presently by the three brothers. Wantonness, Placebo, 
and Solace, or Sandy Solace, who is drunk. These three good- 
natured rascals, whom the King addresses familiarly as his serv- 
ants, are imbued with a common desire to see the King provide 
himself with a " lustie concubein," according to the approved 
fashion of the " Romane Kirk." This strikes the King as not 
being quite in accord with his virtuous resolutions of a moment 
before, but the three servants argue convincingly that lechery is 
no sin. A stronger argument is now presented in the appearance 
of the beautiful Dame Sensualitie, who enters with her two 
attendants, Hamelines (Familiarity) and Danger (Assumed Coy- 
ness). The King sees them, and on the advice of his servants 

^ Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaites in Co7n?nendation of Vei-tew and 
Vituperatioun of Vyce, in The Poetical Works of Sir David Lyndsay, ed. 
David Laing, Edinburgh, 1879. The date of the play is uncertain. It was per- 
formed before James V at Linlithgow in 1540, and it may have been performed 
elsewhere at an earlier date. 



88 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

summons them to his presence. Wantonness leads Sensualitie 
before the King, who at once falls in love with her beauty and 
leads her to a private chamber, while his servants retire with 
Hamelines and Danger. 

While they are gone Gude Counsall enters and laments the 
King's fall from grace. He realizes that disgrace and confusion 
are in store for anyone who rejects him. 

Finallie, for conclusioun 
Quha haldis me at delusioun 
Sail be brocht to confusioun 

And this I understand 
For I have made my residence 
With Princes of greit puissance, 
In Ingland, Italic, and France, 

And monie other land. 
But, out of Scotland, wa, alace ! 
I haf bene fleimit lang tyme space 
That garris our gyders all want grace, 

And die befoir thair day. 

Gude Counsall steps back, and Flatterie enters, " new landit 
out of France." After an appropriate address to the audience 
he calls for Falset, who enters and greets him as a brother. 
They lie down to wait for Dissait, " counsallour to the Mer- 
chandmen," and presently he joins them.^ 

Now that their number is complete the three rogues lay their 
plans to deceive the King and enrich themselves at his expense. 
The first step necessary for this scheme is that they should 
change their names, as the King would never receive them with 
their real titles disclosed. Flatterie dubs himself Devotioun, 
Falset becomes Sapience, and Dissait takes the name Dis- 
cretioun. Thus disguised they have no doubts of their ability 

1 This trio, Flatterie, Falset, and Dissait are the real Vices of the play. 
Through Wantonness, Placebo, and Solace the King commits some indiscre- 
tions ; but they merely wish the King to enjoy himself, and have no desire to 
compass his destruction, as is the case with the second trio. 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTAITES 89 

to hoodwink the King. Their only fear is that they may be 
discovered by Correctioun, who can penetrate all disguises. 

At this point the King returns from his conference with Sen- 
sualitie, summons his servants, who have been disporting them- 
selves with Hamelines and Danger, and they all compare lewd 
notes on their recent experiences. The three Vices now approach 
and introduce themselves under their assumed names. The King 
welcomes them and takes them into his service. Gude Counsall 
appears, but is driven out by the newly appointed courtiers. 
The three ladies sing a song, and the King lies down among 
them. 

Dame Veritie now comes in with a New Testament in her 
hand. The three Vices, not liking her appearance, hurry to 
inform Spiritualitie.* Then Chastitie enters, looking for a lodg- 
ing, and complains that everywhere in the land she has been 
denied a home, and even a night's entertainment. She has 
applied at the nunneries, but the Ladies of Religioun would 
have nothing to do with her. Now she makes her plea to the 
three Lords of Spiritualitie, Spiritualitie, Abbot, and Persone, 
but they advise her to pass on. In despair she applies to Tem- 
poralitie,^ but is again repulsed. 

The play is now suspended for the performance of the first 
interlude, which is a burlesque continuance of the play. Chastitie, 
still seeking for lodgings, encounters the Sowtar and the 
Taylour, by whom she is welcomed. They all sit down to 
drink ; but Jennie, the tailor's daughter, spies them and runs 
to tell her mother. Then the two wives come together, complain 
bitterly of the matrimonial abstinence of their husbands, and 
finally drive Chastitie away. After this victory they beat their 
husbands, start off to prepare a feast for themselves, and then 
the play is resumed. 

1 Spiritualitie represents the spiritual lords. 
^ Temporalitie represents the temporal lords. 



90 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Diligence befriends Chastitie by sending Solace to tell the 
King that a " Ladie fair of face " is seeking entertainment. 
Solace delivers his message, but the King is at once a'dvised by 
Sensualitie to banish Chastitie. The King, ready to agree to 
anything that his mistress shall propose, issues the order for 
banishment, and poor Chastitie resigns her fruitless quest and 
suffers herself to be placed in the stocks beside her sister Veritie. 
The latter comforts her with the news that Divyne Correctioun 
has just landed in the country and is hastening to relieve their 
distress. 

Correctioun's varlet enters and proclaims the approach of his 
master ; and at the news Flatterie, Falset, and Dissait are filled 
with alarm and make plans for escape. Falset steals the King's 
money box, but gets into a quarrel with Dissait, who beats him 
and then gets away from his companions with the treasure. 

The long-expected advent now takes place. Divyne Correc- 
tioun enters and makes a speech on his relations with kings and 
realms. He is eagerly welcomed by Gude Counsall, who has 
been lying idle waiting for him ever since the King's fall from 
grace. They remove Chastitie and Veritie from the stocks, and 
the four go to the King, who is still sleeping among his minions. 
Correctioun awakes him, rebukes him sharply, and orders Sen- 
sualitie away. But Sensualitie still has friends to shelter her in 
time of need. She takes Hamelines and Danger with her and 
repairs to the Lords of the Spirituall Stait, where they are 
all lovingly received. 

The King is now ordered by Correctioun to receive Gude 
Counsall, Veritie, and Chastitie, and to make " ane perpetuall 
band " with them, which command he very humbly obeys. He 
is then instructed to proclaim a parliament, and sends Diligence 
out on this errand. The stern reformed" now censures Wanton- 
ness, Placebo, and Solace, but they humbly sue for pardon and 
crave permission to remain with the King in order to furnish 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTA/TES 91 

him with innocent amusements, such as music, reading, and 
dancing. Correctioun admits that " Princes may sumtyme seik 
solace," and permits the three attendants to remain, with a 
solemn warning to " do na uther cryme." 

The King inquires for his three friends Sapience, Discretioun, 
and Devotioun ; but Veritie and Chastitie tell him that these are 
only assumed names, that the real names are Falset, Dissait, 
and Flatterie, and that their owners have robbed him and fled 
from the country. The action of this first part of the play ends 
now with a summons to Parliament by Diligence. 

The "Interlude of the Puir Man and the Pardoner" is played 
in the interval between the first and the second parts of the play. 
Pauper comes in, meets Diligence, and tells him of his troubles. 
These consist mainly of robberies on the part of churchmen, 
who have taken everything he had. Diligence listens to the 
tale, but goes out without evincing much interest, and Pauper 
lies down and goes to sleep. The Pardoner — otherwise known 
as Robert Rome- Raker — enters, followed by the Sowtar and 
his wife, who are actively engaged in a quarrel. They are 
anxious for a separation, which the Pardoner grants them on 
condition that they salute each other in the somewhat undignified 
fashion specified by him. Then Pauper awakes and breaks into 
fresh laments over the loss of his cow. The Pardoner offers to 
repair this loss on receipt of what ready money Pauper may 
have about him. Pauper pays over his last groat, but when the 
Pardoner's incantations fail to produce a cow, he grows angry 
with his deceiver, fights with him, and throws his relics in the 
water. 

This first part, with Rex Humanitas as the human hero to 
be striven for, presents the normal scheme of the Morality : 
State of Goodness — Fall from Grace — Life in Sin — Repent- 
ance and Pardon. The abstractions are not easy to classify, 
since many of them are related, not only to the King, but to 



92 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

the land at large.^ According to the internal evidence of the 
play, however, they must be divided as follows. 

Wantonness, Placebo, and Solace represent desires for pleas- 
ure in the heart of the King. They are not essentially Vices, 
though they at first appear to be so. Toward the close of the 
action Divyne Correctioun censures them, but they plead for 
pardon, which is granted them : 

Solace. Sir, wee sail mend our conditioun, 
Sa ye give us remissioun, 
Bot, give us leave to sing ; 
To dance, to play at chesse, and tabills. 
To reid stories, and mirrie fabils, 
For pleasure of our King. 

Correctioun. Sa that ye do na uther cryme. 
Ye sail be pardonit, at this tyme, 
For quhy ? as I suppois, 
Princes may sumtyme seik solace, 
With mirth, and lawful! mirrines 
Thair spirits to rejoyis. 

These three personifications, then, like Frewyll and Imagy- 
nacyon in Hyckescorner, represent human qualities neither good 
nor evil essentially, but good or evil according as they are 
directed. Sensualitie, on the other hand, is an uncompromising 
Vice. In the play she is introduced to the King by Wantonness, 
and represents a vicious quality in human nature (or, more 
specifically, in the nature of the King) which grows out of a 
comparatively innocent but unguided desire for pleasure. Hame- 
lines and Danger occupy positions nowhere paralleled in the 
whole range of English Moralities. They are not to be con- 
sidered as relating directly to the hero, but only indirectly, as 
being the attendants of Sensualitie, who has direct relations 
with the hero. They are the personifications of familiarity and 

^ In this respect the play differs materially from Maptyfycence, where all 
the personifications, whether representing human qualities or outer forces, are 
related directly, and only, to the hero. 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTAITES 93 

of assumed diffidence or coyness, the two accompaniments of 
sensuality.^ Allegorically, they are quite superfluous here. 

The Vices who work the most harm are Flatterie, Falset, and 
Dissait. They correspond to the Vices, Counterfet Counte- 
naunce. Crafty Conveyaunce, Cloked Colusyon, and Courtly 
Abusyon in Skelton's Magiiyfyccnce, and represent evil forces 
directed from without upon the hero — the counsels of wicked 
advisers. 

Of the Virtues none can be regarded exclusively as a force 
operating within the heart of the hero. Gude Counsall, Veritie, 
and Chastitie may be so regarded in one aspect of their char- 
acters. When the Vices, Sensualitie, Hamelines, and Danger, 
are driven away, Correctioun orders the King to make " ane 
perpetuall band " with them, and the King humbly complies. 
But in the main they are presented as forces for good operating 
in society at large.'^ 

Veritie and Chastitie not only apply for the favor of the King, 
but come into direct relations with other type figures. The 
Lords of the Spirituall Stait order Veritie to be put in the 
stocks ; and Chastitie, after applying for lodgings all over 
the country, suffers the same fate. 

The other characters are easily disposed of. Divyne Correc- 
tioun belongs to the side of the Virtues. He represents the 
power of God directed upon human affairs. The Spiritual 
Lords, or Spiritualitie, Abbot, and Persone, are type figures, 
representing the rulers of the Catholic church, and Temporalitie 
is a type figure representing the lords of the realm. (These 
type figures are of very litde importance in the first part of the 
play.) Diligence is simply the prologue and messenger. 

1 Even these three characters are not confined, in their operations, to the 
hero. Toward the close of the action, when the King repents, they are ordered 
away, and go to the Lords of the Spirituall Stait, where they are received 
lovingly. 

^ See quotation on p. 88, above. 



94 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

After this elaborate division of the characters it will be nec- 
essary to give only a very general interpretation of the allegory 
(and here, of course, the special application to Scotland must 
be ignored), A king of the earth begins his reign with the 
honest desire to rule wisely, but his love of enjoyment leads 
him to partake unwisely of pleasures which soon degenerate 
into habitual sensual indulgence. Then he loses his ambition 
to rule wisely, and refuses to listen to good counsel. This gives 
an opportunity to flattering and dishonest courtiers to enter into 
his service for their own gain ; and, having once been received 
at court, they find it easy to persuade the king to turn a deaf 
ear to honest advice. This example of dishonesty and sensuality 
at court is followed by the influential people of the country, both 
temporal and spiritual, and truth and chastity are nowhere prac- 
tised. But God will not permit this state of things to last long. 
He makes himself felt in the heart of the king, who comes to 
himself, realizes the wickedness of his life, and determines to 
abandon his vices and turn to a life of truth and chastity, re- 
taining only those pleasures which are not sinful. He learns, 
finally, that the flatterers in whom he has placed so much con- 
fidence are a set of rascals who have robbed him, and, at signs 
of his reformation, have fled from the court.^ 

It will be seen that my interpretation of Rex Humanitas as a 
king of the earth is, at most points, an unnecessary narrowing 
of the character. Except in a few situations he could be regarded 
as the typical human hero, like Everyman or Humanum Genus; 
but these situations — where, for instance. Rex Humanitas is 
the model of viciousness for the rest of the nation to copy from 
— make it necessary, for a consistent interpretation of the whole 
action, to regard him as a king. In thus departing from the tradi- 
tional form Lyndsay, like Skelton, simply modified the orthodox 
Morality in order to present a daring satire on Court conditions. 

1 Cf. p. Si, note i, of this work. 



L USTY JUVENTUS 9 5 

Liisty Jtivcntiis} like the half-play just discussed, is a Refor- 
mation Morality, without being primarily a controversial play.^ 
Here the resemblance ceases abruptly. Lyndsay's Satyrc, in 
spite of its plainly avowed and strictly maintained moral pur- 
pose, is an interesting play, full of eloquent passages and 
abounding in action ; Lusty Jiiventiis is remarkable chiefly for 
its astonishingly dull exposition of Scripture and its heaping 
up of Scriptural quotations, with careful reference to book and 
chapter. 

The Prologue announces that the play has been written to 
show the necessity of controlling the child with a firm hand : 

Give him no liberty in youth, nor his folly excuse, 

Bow down his neck, and help him in good awe, 

Lest he be stubborn : no labor refuse 

To train him in wisdom and teach him God's law, 

For youth is frail and easy to draw 

By grace to goodness, by nature to ill : 

That nature hath engrafted, is hard to kill. 

Then Lusty Juventus, or Youth, enters and almost redeems 

a very tiresome play by singing the beautiful lyric, '* In youth 

is pleasure." He is in high spirits, and is much disappointed 

at not finding a merry company. In his joyous frame of mind 

it does not suit him to be alone, and he is just starting off to 

look up some jovial companions when Good Counsel comes 

upon him. Youth inquires if he has seen any minstrels. "' Sir," 

says Good Counsel, " I will ask you a question by your favor : 

what would you with a minstrel do ? " Youth innocently rises 

to the fly with 

Nothing but have a dance or two, 

To pass the time away in pleasure. 

Whereat Good Counsel, having hooked his victim, proceeds to 
play him with the rod of the Holy Scriptures until the exhausted 

1 Written between 1 547 and 1 553. The text used is that in Dodsley, Vol. II. 

2 Cf. p. 43, above. 



96 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Youth at length comes to the surface with, " Now, in faith, I 
cry you mercy." Good Counsel instructs him how to live " chris- 
tianly," and Youth kneels and receives his blessing. Knowledge, 
or as he prefers to be called, True Knowledge of God's Verity, 
joins Good Counsel in putting Youth through a complete course 
of Scriptural erudition, and they retire at last with Youth utter- 
ing a solemn promise never to leave his teachers while he lives 
in the world. 

The Devil comes in howling his grief for the loss of Youth, 
and lamenting that the young people are no longer content to 
live " in old traditions." ^ He is not prepared, however, to re- 
sign Youth without a struggle, and calls in his son Hypocrisy 
as being the most likely person to help him in this crisis. 

Hypocrisy joins his father, proclaiming loudly that he is by 
occupation a butcher. The Devil greets him almost tearfully. 
He is in a very downcast frame of mind, and his pessimism 
contrasts strongly with the sturdiness and cheerful self-reliance 
of Hypocrisy, who is full of plans to seduce Youth again by 
means of his old weapons, " holy cardinals, holy popes," and 
all the other " holy " appliances of his own pet institution. 
The Devil's cheerfulness is restored. He gives his son a more 
attractive name. Friendship, and leaves him to carry out his 
plans. 

The disguised Hypocrisy discloses his scheme of seduction 
in a soliloquy. He will introduce his wicked friend Fellowship 
to Youth, and present to him, in due course of time, the harlot 
Abominable Living, whom he will first take the precaution of 
renaming Unknowen Honesty. By these means he is confident 
of his power to plunge Youth into a course of carnal living, 
and thus to bind him securely to his father the Devil. 

Youth reappears, and Hypocrisy introduces himself as Friend- 
ship. The gullible Youth is glad to see him, but shies at his 

1 A fling at the Catholic Church. 



LUSTY JUVENTUS 97 

companion's first inducements to the life of pleasure. " My in- 
tention," he asserts modestly, " is to go hear a preaching." But 
the wily Hypocrisy beats down his objections one by one, and 
soon brings him to the point of admitting that he would fain 
enjoy himself but for the fear of being detected by his teachers. 
Hypocrisy now throws in his most telling inducement. They 
will go out, he says, to a feast, and have a pudding. " By the 
mass," cries the delighted Youth, 

that meat I love above all thing ; 
You may draw me about the town with a pudding. 

They are joined by P^ellowship, a merry rascal who falls in 
enthusiastically with all their plans. There is just one thing 
lacking to Youth's felicity, so his companions assure him. He 
must have a mistress. This appears reasonable enough to 
Youth ; and when they are presently joined by Abominable 
Living, who is introduced as Unknowen Honesty, he greets 
her with transports of joy. His affection is returned to such 
an extent that Plypocrisy and Fellowship become a bit jealous. 
However, after a little bickering, the whole party sallies forth 
singing a merry song.^ 

They are no sooner gone than Good Counsel returns in 
great tribulation, and grieving for the downfall of Youth. While 
he voices his sorrow Youth reappears, looking for some one to 
play at dice with him. Good Counsel heaps reproaches upon 
him, and is at first answered with blustering and defiance. But 
by a judicious combination of Scriptural quotations Good Coun- 
sel finally convicts his erring pupil of sin. Youth lies down 

^ If the songs here are original, the author had, at least, a decided lyrical 
talent. The song at the beginning of the play has been already referred to. 
The one at this point is only inferior to it in beauty : 

Do not the flowers spring fresh and gny, 
Pleasant and sweet in the month of May ? 
And when their time comcth they fade away. 
Report me to you, report me to you. 



98 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

in utter despair for his sins, but now Good Counsel takes a 
different tack, and assures him kindly, '" God's mercy doth 
exceed thy sin." Youth refuses to be comforted until God's 
Merciful Promises comes in and assures him that God will 
pardon him, not through his own deserts, but purely through 
divine mercy. Youth is overcome with gratitude, renounces his 
evil courses forever, and plans to complete his life in humble 
service to God. 

The least that one could ask in compensation for the dullness 
of the play is that the allegory should be unequivocal, but the 
author has made no concessions. Hypocrisy and Fellowship, the 
two hardest characters to analyze, may stand for evil forces 
either within or without the nature of Youth, and Fellowship 
may be either an abstraction or a type figure representing boon 
^companions. I do not feel inclined, on the whole, to regard them 
as forces within the hero's nature. Hypocrisy, for instance, is 
summoned by the Devil and sent to corrupt Juventus, and he 
accomplishes his mission by introducing Juventus to a harlot. 
Abominable Living. Thus far it would be easy enough to ex- 
plain the action by saying that the young man, after his con- 
version, becomes hypocritical and lives a vile life in secret. 
But Hypocrisy introduces Abominable Living to Juventus under 
the assumed name of Unknown Honesty, and it would be ob- 
viously ridiculous to say that a young man, becoming imbued 
with hypocrisy, falls into vile habits in the mistaken belief that 
they are honorable. Hypocrisy, then, is best interpreted as 
representing a vice practised by other people, through which the 
young man is deceived and led into a life of sin. Fellowship 
can be brought down to two possibilities : he is either the 
friendliness in youth's nature, or the representative of youth's 
boon companions. Since he is the companion of Hypocrisy, 
and aids in the deception by which Juventus is led to take up 
with Abominable Living, he is best regarded as representing 



THE INTERLUDE OF YOUTH 99 

boon companions. These two Vices, then, I take to represent 
the hypocritical and roystering companions of Juventus.^ 

Good Counsel, on the side of the Virtues, is the same sort 
of character as Hypocrisy the Vice ; that is, he represents 
either religious advice, or the people giving religious advice to 
Juventus. Knowledge, who blesses Juventus after Good Coun- 
sel has given his advice, represents a virtue within the mind of 
the hero. The other characters are sufficiently obvious to pass 
without explanation. 

The interpretation is as follows : The young man, living a 
happy and thoughtless life, comes under the influence of reli- 
gious teaching. He listens to this, acquires a knowledge of God's 
truth, and begins to lead a better life. But through the false rep- 
resentations of his hypocritical friends and boon companions he is 
soon decoyed back into a life of sin. After a period he once more 
encounters the teaching of God's word, but he has now become 
so hardened that at first he refuses to listen. In the end, how- 
ever, he is convicted of sin and is plunged in remorse until there 
comes to him a realization of God's promises of mercy toward 
repentant sinners, when he is imbued with a fresh determination 
to persist in a life of virtue. 

The Interlude of Youth ^ is one of the few Moralities leaning 
toward Catholicism. It contains no avowed controversy, but its 

1 Here again it will be seen that, as soon as we interpret characters with 
abstract names as forces working from without upon the hero, we are compelled 
to regard them sometimes as type figures. See p. 81, note i, above. 

- Dated usually between 1553 and 1558. The text used here is that in 
Dodsley, Vol. II. The term "Interlude," which is applied to this and many other 
Moralities, has caused a great deal of discussion ; but I am convinced that, in 
its application to Moralities, it has no special significance whatever, except in 
such cases as the interludes in the intervals of Lyndsay's Satyre ol the Thrie 
Estaites. The New English Dictionary defines the Interlude as " a dramatic 
or mimic representation, usually of a light or humourous character, such as was 
commonly introduced between the acts of the long mystery plays or moralities, 
or exhibited as part of an elaborate entertainment." Ward, I, 108, says : " It 
\i.e., the term " Interlude "] seems to have been applied to plays performed by 



lOO THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

attitude and sympathies are on the Cathohc side. It is, on the 
whole, remarkably well constructed for a Morality. The speeches 
are short and vivid, and no time is wasted on long-winded mor- 
alizings. Youth himself is far in advance of the ordinary puppet 
hero. He has a real sense of humor, and this combines with 
his breezy vigor and self-assertion to make him a very attrac- 
tive and really human figure. In situation this play has a good 
deal in common with Lusty Juvcjitiis. The hero — the typical 
young man — is the same in both, and in both cases he comes 
on the stage exulting in the gaiety and freedom of youth. 

There is no prologue to this play. Charity appears first and 
simply gives an explanation of his character, laying heavy stress 
on his importance to Man. Then Youth enters with a rush, 
rejoicing in his strength and happiness : 

Aback, fellows, and give mo room, 
Or I shall make you to avoid soon ! 
I am goodly of person ; 
I am peerless wherever I come. 
My name is Youth, I tell thee, 
I flourish as the vine tree : 
Who may be likened unto me. 
In my youth and jollity ? 

professional actors from the time of Edward IV onwards. Its origin is doubt- 
less to be found in the fact that such plays were occasionally performed in the 
intervals of banquets and entertainments, which of course would have been out 
of the question in the case of religious plays proper." Chambers, II, i8i ff., 
recognizing the wide application of the term to almost every species of play 
from the fourteenth century on, is not satisfied with the existing definitions. He 
says (p. 1S3) : " I am inclined myself to think that the force of i7iier in the 
combination has been misunderstood, and that an iiitcrludium is not a ludtis 
in the intervals of something else, but a liuliis carried on between [inter) two 
or more performers ; in fact, a liidns: in dialogue. The term would then apply 
primarily to any kind of dramatic performance whatever." 

This last definition has the appearance of being rather far-fetched. It seems 
to me more reasonable to suppose that the term was first used in the ordinary 
signification of entertainment in the intervals of something else, but came to 
be applied loosely and indiscriminately to any kind of dramatic performance. 



THE INTERLUDE OF YOUTH lOl 

My hair is royal and brushed thick ; 
My body pliant as a hazel-stick ; 
Mine arms be both big and strong, 
My fingers be both fair and long ; 
My chest big as a tun, 
My legs be full light for to run, 
To hop and dance, and make merry. 
By the mass, I reck not a cherry, 

Whatsoever I do ! 
I am the heir of all my father's land, 
And it is come into my hand : 

I care for no more. 

Charity at once realizes that here is a fitting object for his 
arguments, and approaches Youth with the suggestion that he 
would be better occupied asking God's mercy than praising his 
body. Youth flies into a rage at this interference with his natural 
rights, and requests Charity in unequivocal terms to attend to 
his own affairs. But Charity is not an easy person to get rid of. 
He appeals to Youth with every argument at his command, 
reminds him of the approach of old age and the loss of his 
strength, holds forth the hope of heavenly bliss, and quotes 
Scripture, but all in vain. Youth repels every advance with 
insults and threats, and at last Charity is brought to realize that 
he can never gain his point without the aid of his brother 
Humility, So he starts off to seek his brother, and is sped on 
his way by the incorrigible Youth with : 

Yea, marry, sir, I pray you of that ; 
Methink it were a good sight of your back ; 
I would see your heels hither. 
And your brother and you together 

Fettered fine fast ! 
I-wis, and I had the key. 
Ye should sing well-away 
Ere I let you loose ! 

Riot now appears and is accorded a very different reception. 
He and Youth are evidently on terms of intimate friendship, and 



I02 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

their conversation is that of a pair of boon companions, not at 
all like the usual contact of Vice with human figure, where the 
latter is the innocent and confiding dupe of his clever tempter. 
Youth here is quite a match for Riot in repartee and needs no 
urging toward the life of sin ; so, instead of the usual tempta- 
tion scene, we get a recital of Riot's madcap adventures in the 
city, with expressions of curiosity mingled with chaffing on the 
part of Youth. Riot tells how he was put in Newgate for 
pocketing a man's purse, and then how the Mayor of London 
sent for him "for to preach at Tyburn." "By our Lady!" says 

Youth, 

he did promote thee, 
To make thee preach at the gallow-tree ! 
But, sir, how didst thou 'scape ? 

Riot. Verily, sir, the rope brake, 
And so I fell to the ground, 
And ran away, safe and sound : 
By the way I met with a courtier's lad. 
And twenty nobles of gold in his purse he had : 
I took the lad on the ear, 
Beside his horse I felled him there : 
I took his purse in my hand, 
And twenty nobles therein I fand. 

Lord, how I was merry ! 

And so the conversation goes on, as if a pair of Vices had come 
together to compare notes ; for it is almost unnecessary to add 
that when two Vices meet they nearly always assume the tone of a 
couple of dishonest rascals fresh from the performance of crime. 
Riot at last suggests that they go along to the tavern for a 
surfeit of wine and a kiss from a pretty wench ; but there is 
some business to be settled first. Youth, full of importance 
from the acquisition of his father's estate, wishes a servant to 
be in constant attendance upon him, and Riot assures him that 
he can procure "a servant of price," Master Pride. Pride, ac- 
cordingly, is brought in and welcomed by Youth, whom he at 



THE INTERLUDE OF YOUTH 103 

once proceeds to instruct in the proper manner of deportment. 
He is to consider himself better than anyone else, be arrogant 
to the poor, and wear gay clothes. Youth, for the first time, 
adopts a tone of grateful humility : 

Sir, I thank thee, by the rood, 
For thy counsel that is so good ; 
And I commit me even now 
Under the teaching of Riot and you. 

Pride, thus encouraged, advises Youth to get a wife, but here 
Riot breaks in with violent objections. Let Youth have a mistress 
by all means, he says, but under no condition a wife : 

The devil said he had liever burn all his life 
Than once for to take a wife. 

But Pride has a sister. Lechery, and Riot suggests that she 
would be a suitable leman for Youth, Pride is agreed and de- 
parts for his sister, with whom he presently returns. Youth is 
delighted with his new acquisition, and is now impatient to de- 
part for the tavern for fear Charity may return and make things 
unpleasant for them. Just as the company is leaving. Youth's 
fears are realized. Charity does appear and requests a word with 
Youth, but the others turn upon him violently in spite of Youth's 

indecisive ,, . , 

Yet, sirs, let this cease, 

And let us talk of goodness.^ 

Riot hurries out, returns with an appliance which is referred 
to once as " a pair of rings " and again as '" a good chain," and 
they tie Charity up 2 and sally forth on their long-deferred trip 
to the tavern. 

1 This apparent wavering on the part of Youth is very curious. It is only 
momentary, no notice is taken of it, and the next time Youth speaks he is in 
full sympathy with Charity's tormentors. 

^ Compare the scene in Hyckescomer, where the Vices put Pity in the stocks. 
See page 41, above. 



I04 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Charity, considering the provocation, shows great self-restraint 
in the short speech in which he laments the foolishness of Man 
to turn from good to evil. Humility soon appears and frees him 
from his bonds. The two brothers have barely time to exchange 
assurances of loyalty in the fight for Youth when the object of 
their solicitude returns, more arrogant than ever, and still ac- 
companied by Riot and Pride. The teachings of the latter have 
fallen upon fertile soil, for Youth now loudly asserts : 

By right I am king eternal ; 

Neither duke ne lord, baron ne knight, 

That may be likened unto me. 

They be subdued to me by right, 

As servants to their masters should be. 

Charity and Humility, nothing daunted, settle down to the 
apparently hopeless task of converting him. Youth at first an- 
swers them with high disdain, and reiterates his determination 
to continue with Riot and Pride, who back him up stoutly, abuse 
their opponents, and hold out to Youth the prospect of some 
day becoming emperor if he retains them in his service. At 
last Charity happens on an argument that interests Youth. He 
tells him that God set him free when he was " bond." Youth 
is at once curious to know how that may be, since he " was 
never bond unto none in England." Then Charity explains the 
Redemption, and Youth immediately offers to change his ways 
and be ruled by Charity and Humility if they will tell him how 
to save his soul. They tell him that he must ask God's mercy 
and forsake Pride and Riot. These directions Youth proceeds 
to follow, and his old attendants leave him in sorrow and anger. 
He is instructed in his new way of life, and, after a short prayer 
by Humility, the play ends. 

The scheme here is the simplest to be found in the whole 
range of English Moralities. It presents only two stages, State 
of Wickedness and Final Conversion.' The plot is much less 



IMPATIENT POVERTY 1 05 

complicated than that of Lusty Juvenilis . All the characters, 
both virtuous and vicious, are to be interpreted solely as forces 
struggling for supremacy in the heart of the hero. On the one 
side are pride, lust, and all the riotous feelings of youth ; on 
the other, the leanings of youth — at first almost imperceptible, 
but steadily growing in intensity — toward meekness and charity. 
The interpretation may be thus outlined : The young man exults 
in his health and strength, and scorns the idea of practising 
virtue. To enjoy the pleasures of the world and to satisfy the 
lusts of his flesh are for him the great objects of life. His soul 
will have to be chastened by humility before he can leave off 
his riotous pleasures and practise Christian charity. At times, 
in the midst of his pleasures, he feels the faint stirring of virtue 
in his heart, but refuses to give it expression. When he becomes 
older, however, and more thoughtful, his heart is humbled. He 
turns away from his worldly pleasures and devotes himself to a 
life of charity. 

Impatient Poverty} the next play on the list, differs from any 
play hitherto discussed in having a subplot. Impatient Poverty 
himself is the hero of the main action, and Abundance is the 
chief figure in the subplot. The experiment — if it were one — 
cannot be regarded as successful. In this particular class of 
Moralities the success depends largely on having the attention 
fastened from beginning to end upon one central figure who is 
steadily and earnestly striven for by two opposing factions, the 
good and the evil. 

Peace does the work of a prologue, explaining that Man, to be 
prosperous and happy, must befriend him and avoid that false 
wretch. Envy. He is suddenly joined by Envy, who has caught 
the drift of his remarks, and who now challenges him fiercely 
to prove that peace is better than war. What would the armorers 

1 Printed in 1560. The text used is that in ^^Lost" Tudor Plays, edited by 
John S. Farmer. 



io6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

and soldiers do without war ? he demands. And the surgeons, 
who make their hving by mending broken pates ? 

And what sayest thou by men of law ? 
Their living were not worth a straw 
And every man should live in peace ! 

Peace, having a complacent realization that he is right any- 
how, does not trouble himself much with refuting Envy's argu- 
ments, but contents himself with assuring him that he is wrong, 
and a lewd fellow into the bargain. However, he is capable of 
defending his position when real need comes, as he proves when 
Envy complicates the argument with the question, 

If your wife made you cuckold, you being present, 
What would you do ? 

Peace seems to fall readily into the trap. " Give her such pun- 
ishment," he replies calmly, "" as longeth thereto." 

Envy. A false, flattering whoreson, lo ! 
Now thou sayest against thine own declaration : 
If thou fight where is then peace become.'' 

Peace. I break not peace with doing due correction ; 
For correction should be done charitably — 

Irascemini et nolite peccare. 

The couple then take leave of each other, breathing threatenings 
and slaughter. 

Peace remains and is soon joined by Impatient Poverty, who 
enters in a great fume because " a knave would have rested " 
him. '" I owe him but forty pence," he adds irascibly. "He shall 
abide, by God's dear blest ! " Peace rebukes him for his dis- 
honest attitude, and is answered with curses and ridicule ; but 
his arguments in favor of peace and charity of conduct gradually 
awaken the interest of Impatient Poverty, who ends by placing 
himself under the instruction of Peace, with a solemn promise 
to live a sober Christian life. Thereupon Peace gives him new 



IMF A TIE NT PO VER TV 107 

vesture to symbolize his change of heart, changes his name to 
Prosperity, and gives him a final warning against the temptations 
that will come to him, bidding him in particular beware of Envy. 
Then the two go out together. 

Abundance and Conscience come in conversing. Abundance 
boasts loudly of his wealth and explains his methods of gaining 
it, which are dishonest in the extreme. Conscience rebukes him 
severely for his dishonesty, to his great surprise. He is inclined 
at first to regard Conscience as a fool for bringing up such far- 
fetched objections to what he regards as regular methods of 
business, but at length is brought to see the error of his ways. 
" What remedy ? " he inquires. 

Cons. To make restitution. 

Abun. What call ye restitution ? 

Cons. Restore such goods as ye have gotten 
Wrongfully, by oppression. 

Abun. Then shall I have little in my possession: 
I will make God amends another way. 
I will fast and I will pray, 
And I will give alms every day. 
That I have done amiss, I am sorry, therefore. 

But this will not satisfy Conscience ; and Abundance, after re- 
ceiving a solemn warning to profit by the example of King 
Ahab, leaves unconverted. 

Envy comes running in laughing, and out of breath with 
haste to deliver himself of a merry and ribald tale. He finds a 
rather cold audience in Conscience, whose sole response to these 
efforts to entertain him is, 

Good fellow, thou art to blame 

Such words to have : no good thou can. 

Envy at once sees that he has made a mistake and skillfully 
changes his tack. He only thought to make things pleasant for 
Conscience, he explains. His name is Charity. He is much 



Io8 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

neglected by both Spirituality and Temporality, and is in con- 
stant danger of becoming an outcast. " This is to me a strange 
case," says Conscience. "What hear ye by Conscience.?" 
Then the pinchbeck Charity admits that things are looking 
very black for Conscience. The wisest course for him would 
be to flee from the country and thus avoid being burned at 
Tyburn. Then Conscience hurries out with great haste, and in 
much distress. Envy dances about in high glee at the success 
of his trick. 

Prosperity enters with a prayer on his lips and is welcomed 
as Impatient Poverty by Envy, who is again thrown suddenly 
on his resources when he is piously assured that Impatient 
Poverty is a discarded name. He begs Prosperity's pardon, and 
explains that he used the old name merely for the convenience 
of the audience, who are used to it. But Prosperity is in a very 
self-sufficient mood now. He shakes Envy off in spite of the 
latter's protestations that his name is Charity, and starts to go 
out, when the resourceful Envy requests him, as a parting favor, 
to keep his bag containing "' three hundred pound " of gold 
while he journeys to Jerusalem. Prosperity now recognizes him 
as his "' cousin Charity," and begs his pardon. Envy follows up 
this advantage by telling Prosperity that he must have a greater 
retinue of servants, and go in more for pleasure. Prosperity 
agrees, and retires to act upon this advice. 

Envy is in high feather at his success, and confides to the 
audience that his chief purpose is to bring Prosperity to evil 
condition. Then his friend Misrule joins him, fresh from the 
stews, and trolling out a macaronic song. The two rogues plan 
to combine against Prosperity. 

Their dupe returns at this point, and Envy introduces Mis- 
rule, under the name of Mirth, as a fitting man for a servant to 
Prosperity. The latter accepts him gladly ; and, thus encouraged, 
the two tempters advise him to provide himself with a wench 



IMP A TIENT PO VERTY 1 09 

and other appurtenances of a jovial life. Prosperity remembers 
that Peace has forbidden this, but when his two friends abuse 
Peace he gives in. "By my troth ! " he admits, 

I may say to thee 
Sith I to him did assent 
Had I never merry day ; 
But lived in fear and dread alway, 
Nothing to mine intent. 
Another while I will me sport,' 
Sing and dance, to my comfort. 

The Vices then remove from him the vestures of Peace, and 
they all prepare to go out and enjoy themselves. As they are 
leaving, Peace encounters Prosperity and rebukes him, but the 
latter orders him away, and the Vices finally drive him out. 
Then they tell Prosperity of one Colhazard, a great dice-player, 
and Prosperity boasts that he will play with him " as long as an 
hundred pound will last." 

In the next scene Misrule . enters exulting in the ruin of 
Prosperity. Envy joins him, and the two exchange congratula- 
tions. Then Colhazard follows with the money which he has 
fleeced from Prosperity, but refuses to share it with his confed- 
erates. The upshot of this difference in point of view is that 
the three leave the stage fighting savagely over the bag of coin. 

Prosperity returns, poorly clad, and sorely lamenting his folly. 
His name has been changed to Poverty to suit his new condition. 
Envy and Misrule come in for a few minutes to exult over him ; 
then retire, in spite of Poverty's earnest entreaties to them to 
stay. Poverty urges the audience to learn a lesson by his 
blunders ; then the Sumner comes in and arrests him for debt. 

A short scene follows in which Abundance is boasting that 
he keeps a wench in his chamber. The Sumner arrives to 
arrest him for this offense, but is at once mollified by a bribe, 
and instructs Abundance how to buy himself off from justice. 



no THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Finally, as Poverty is in the depths of misfortune and despair, 
and is doing " penance " for his debt, Peace again joins him 
and learns of his downfall. Poverty tells him how Abundance 
has sinned and yet has gone scot-free in consideration of a bribe, 
whereat the Sumner is rebuked and sent out by Peace, Poverty 
is deeply humbled and begs for comfort ; and Peace, who con- 
siders him well punished, reclothes him in his own vesture, 
gives him careful instructions and warnings for his future life, 
and changes his name back to Prosperity. The two end the 
play with prayers for the Queen and her realm. 

The hero of the main action, variously entitled Impatient 
Poverty, Prosperity, and Poverty, is, like Magnyfycence and 
several other Morality heroes, a type figure called by an abstract 
name. He does not typify a class, but mankind in general ; 
and, as his names clearly indicate, he is treated entirely from 
the point of view of worldly prosperity. Peace on the one hand, 
and Envy and Misrule on the other, represent qualities within 
the heart of man, warring against each other. Colhazard is an 
unimportant character, and it is immaterial whether we regard 
him as a gambler or as the vice of gambling. On the whole I 
prefer to take the latter view. In the subplot Abundance is also 
a type figure — the unscrupulous man of wealth, who refuses to 
listen to the voice of Conscience, 

As to the moral, Peace gives us a not uncalled-for explanation 

(P-313): 

The devil, the world, and the flesh, these three in special, 
Which setteth division between the soul and the body ; 
In like wise envy setteth debate between party and party. 
I speak for the cause ; daily ye may see 
How that by envy and malice many be destroyed, 
Which if they had lived in peace with patient humility, 
Riches and prosperity with them had been employed. 

So much for the moral animating the action. A step-by-step 
interpretation is still necessary. Man, living in a state of poverty, 



MARIE MAGDALENE III 

is much irritated at his condition until he learns that the surest 
way to prosperity is to lead a peaceful Christian life. This change 
in his nature is followed by worldly comfort and happiness. But 
he is not long satisfied with the good that he has, and becomes 
envious of the riches of other people. Thus he is led to enter 
into strife with his fellow-men and finally attempts to increase 
his wealth easily by gambling. He is properly rewarded for this 
by being fleeced of all his riches and is reduced to abject poverty, 
when he realizes that his prosperity is dependent on his living 
quietly and at peace with everybody. Acting upon this discovery 
he soon repairs his broken fortunes, and, profiting by his late 
experience, he determines to keep out of strife in the future. 

The Life and Repenta7ice of Marie Magdalene} by Lewis 
Wager, is, strictly speaking, a Miracle-Morality. The Miracle ele- 
ment, to be sure, is kept pretty consistently in the background ; 
but, even so, the play, from the allegorical point of view, is 
considerably hampered by its presence. In the first place, the 
human hero (or, in this case, heroine) to be striven for is a 
specific character derived from Scripture and saint's legend,^ 
and in the present play there is no attempt to broaden her 
significance ; whereas in the earlier play on the same subject it 
is explicitly stated that " she xall byn abyll to dystroye helle " ^ 
unless she is corrupted to a life of sin. In the second place, 
since the conversion of Marie is accomplished mainly by a mira- 
cle on the part of Christ, there is a complete absence of Virtues 
from the main action of the play. This in itself would hardly 
constitute a fault in the eyes of a carnal-minded audience ; but 
the author, if compelled by the exigencies of his subject to 
banish Virtues from the main action, was not minded to let 

^ Edited by Frederic Ives Carpenter, Chicago, 1904. Carpenter conjectures 
{Introduction, p. xv) that the play was probably printed about 1550, though 
not entered in the Stationers' Register till 1556. 

* See p. 37, note 2, above. 

' See p. 35, note 3, above. 



112 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

his audience suffer for any lack of virtuous admonishment. The 
Vices grow almost virtuous in their anxiety to have the audience 
see through their perfidy. Infidelitie, the chief Vice, on his 
first appearance issues an earnest warning to the audience : 

Beware of me, Infidelity ! 
Like as Faith is the root of all goodnesse, 
So am I the head of all iniquitie, 
The well and spryng of all wickednesse ! ^ 

This serious tone is so often adopted by Infidelitie that he 
almost seems, at times, to occupy the paradoxical position of a 
personified vice striving to overthrow wickedness ; whereas the 
fact is that the author is constitutionally unable to refrain from 
moral didacticism, and if there is no personified virtue on the 
stage to be made the vehicle of this moralizing he will use any 
character that does happen to be there, even if that character is 
the chief Vice of the play. 

The prologue takes at first the form of a sermon on the text, 

Nulla tam modesta felicitas est 

Quae malignantis dentes vitare possit, 

then announces the subject to be treated in the play, and con- 
cludes with this curious apology for employing the allegorical 
method : 

We desire no man in this poynt to be offended, 
In that vertues with vice we shall here introduce ; 
For in men and women they have depended : 
And therefore figuratively to speak, it is the use. 
I trust that all wise men will accept our excuse. 

Next Infidelitie, the chief Vice, appears and gives a prolonged 
account of himself to the audience. He announces his deter- 
mination to overthrow the plans of Christ, who, he hears, has 

1 P. 7 (11. 31-35). See the whole of this speech ; also, for further examples 
of this virtuous tone on the part of a Vice, see p. 10 (11. 120, etc.) and p. 12 
(11. 174, etc.). 



MARIE MAGDALENE 113 

lately come to the land. He hopes to accomplish his work easily 
by the aid of his seven helpers, the Seven Deadly Sins : 

Mary, syr, yet I convey my matters cleane ! 

Like as I have a visour of vertue, 

So my impes, whiche vnto my person do leane, 

The visour of honestie doth endue ; 

As these : Pride I vsed to call cleanlynesse ; 

Enuie I colour with the face of prudence ; 

Wrathe putteth on the coate of manlynesse ; 

Couetise is profite in every man's sentence ; 

Slouthe or idlenesse I painte out with quiete ; 

Gluttonie or excesse I name honest chere ; 

Lechery, vsed for many men's diete, 

I set on with the face of love, both farre and nere.^ 

As Infidelitie ceases speaking Marie Magdalene enters, 
"triflyng with her garmentes " and beshrewing the tailors for 
the " bungarly " work they have done on her new clothes. 
Infidelity is all sympathy at once, but his condolences are 
received with scorn : 

What haue you to do ? Holde your bablyng tong. 
Haue you any thyng to doe with the same ? 

But when Infidelitie makes up his mind to be sympathetic he 
is not lightly to be turned from his purpose. He returns bravely 
to the charge, flatters Mary in unmeasured terms, and soon 
worms himself into her confidence to such an extent that she 
requests him to be her chief adviser in all matters pertaining to 
the guidance of her life. 

He tells her that, since she has inherited riches from her 
parents, and has the castle of Magdalene at her command,^ she 

1 These changes of name indicate, when interpreted, that man does not 
embrace sins as sins, but under the delusion that they are virtues or legitimate 
pleasures. 

2 The author, for the most part, confines himself strictly to the biblical 
story, and it is only in one or two references to Marie's parental training and 
riches, at the beginning of the play, that we find any influence from the saint's 
legend. See Carpenter, Introduction, p. xxxii. 



114 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

must "make good chere." This advice accords with Mary's 
desires, and she goes out to array herself in finer garments. 

Infidelitie is now joined by Pride of Lyfe, Cupiditie, and 
Carnall Concupiscence, After the greetings InfideHtie tells 
them of his success with Mary. They all remember her, and 
boast of the desires they have already kindled in her heart. 
Her fall has not yet been accomplished, but her feelings are 
already tending downward. As usual the Vices decide to change 
their names in order to be admitted to the friendship of their 
intended victim. Pride is to be called Nobilitie or Honour, 
Cupiditie is given the name Utilitie, and Carnall Concupiscence 
becomes Pleasure. Infidelitie has several names available for use 
at different times, but he selects Prudence as the one most likely 
to appeal to Mary and accomplish her downfall. 

Mary returns complaining about the inattention of her servants. 
Infidelitie, alias Prudence, tells her his name, which he has 
omitted to mention before, and introduces his friends. Mary is 
greatly attracted to them all, and shows her pleasure at the 
meeting by kissing the company all round several times. This 
friendly intercourse Infidelitie is willing to prolong indefinitely, 
but Pride breaks in impatiently, " Leve kissyng, and treate we 
of matters more ernest." So they settle down to business, and 
Mary is carefully instructed by her friends in the best methods 
of setting off her personal beauty in order to win the love of 
men. Finally, after a song, the three minor Vices depart, and 
Mary with Infidelitie sets off for Jerusalem, where a banquet is 
to be prepared for her. 

Simon the Pharisee comes in with Malicious Judgement. The 
two are making plans to compass the ruin of Christ, and finally 
Simon agrees to invite their intended victim to a feast at his 
house, where he hopes to entrap him into saying something 
contrary to the laws. He sets out to look for Christ, and In- 
fidelitie enters with the joyous news that Mary's downfall has 



MARIE MAGDALENE 115 

been accomplished. But Malicious Judgement has other inter- 
ests at stake, and cannot take much interest in this matter for the 
present. After inviting Infidelitie to join them at Simon's feast 
he goes about his business, "seekyng for the same Christ both 
farre and nere." 

Mary reappears and talks in a matter-of-fact way to Infidelitie 
about her amours. Suddenly they espy some one coming toward 
them with tables of stone in his hand. They stand aside to 
listen, and the newcomer approaches and proclaims himself to 
be the Lawe of God. He explains how the curse of God must 
follow sin ; and Mary, listening, is seized with remorse. She 
cries out, lamenting her past sin, but the Lawe has little con- 
solation to offer. " Thy heart," he tells her, 

hath great occasion to blede, 
For many lustes and dedes hath defiled thy conscience. 

Then, to crown Mary's remorse, Knowledge of Sinne follows 
to assure her : 

I am evermore before the conscience sight, 
Shewyng before hym his condemnation, 
So that by the dedes of the law, or by his own might, 
He cannot attaine vnto saluation. 

Infidelitie makes frantic efforts to draw Mary away, but she 
is so filled with horror at her abasement that she can take no 
notice of him. The two worthies, however, are so unyielding in 
their condemnation that Mary cries out against the severity 
of God's justice ; and Infidelitie, commending her heartily for 
this view of the situation, again bids her to follow him and make 
merry while she may, since she sees " no remedy but utter dam- 
nation." Mary would like to follow this advice, but she realizes 
that she can never forget the horrible appearance of Knowledge 
of Sinne. At this Lawe relents somewhat and tells her that if 
she can believe in Christ he will forgive her. 



n6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Mary is again left alone with Infidelitie, who urges her to 
forget her late experience and enjoy life again. But she has 
entirely lost her zest for pleasure, and is in a very irresolute 
state of mind, when Christ enters announcing that his mission 
is not to judge the world but to preach forgiveness and pardon. 
Infidelitie starts to heap abuse on him, but is sternly ordered to 
" avoide out of this woman . . . with the vii divels which have 
her possessed." As Infidelitie disappears Mary falls to the earth, 
there is a loud roaring of devils behind the scenes, and then 
Christ bids her arise. Faith and Repentance enter, and Christ 
presents them to Mary. She is given directions for her new life, 
and then departs with Faith and Repentance, whom Christ sends 
to bear her company. 

The play, to all intents and purposes, ends here ; but there 
are several scenes coming after, which continue the Scriptural 
narrative. Simon the Pharisee and Malicious Judgement come 
and bid Christ to dinner. Malicious Judgement takes Infidelitie 
along to help in their plans. Then the dinner takes place, Mary 
comes in, washes the feet of Christ, and is forgiven her sins. 
During the dinner a long conversation is carried on, in which 
Simon, Malicious Judgement, and Infidelitie attempt to entrap 
Christ into a statement that will lay him open to the law. And, 
finally, in a brief closing scene Justification and Love bestow 
their comfort and advice upon the repentant Mary. 

The action presents the usual scheme of State of Innocence 
— Fall from Grace — Life in Sin — Repentance and Conver- 
sion. At first glance it seems that Mary is a sinful person at the 
beginning of the play ; but this is not so. She merely exhib- 
its possibilities; and though the Vices ultimately find her an 
easy victim, they have as yet entered into no friendly relations 
with her. 

There is no difficulty in assigning the characters to their 
places. Mary, the person to be striven for, is, of course, an 



MARIE MAGDALENE WJ 

individual, and there is no attempt to enlarge her into a type of 
the human race. The play, therefore, is not a pure Morality, 
but a compound of Miracle and Morality, and the reason for 
discussing it here is that it is not a play with allegorical features, 
but primarily a Morality, though added to, and hampered by, 
the slight thread of Scriptural narrative. The Vices, Infidelitie, 
Pride of Life, Cupiditie, and Carnall Concupiscence, when suc- 
cessful have their abode within the heart of the heroine, as we 
are carefully informed when Pride of Life outlines to Infidelitie 
the campaign of vice : 

If thou be once rooted within' the hart, 

Then maist thou make an entrance by thy craft and art, 

So that we may come into hir at pleasure, 

Filling hir with wickednesse beyond all measure ! ^ 

Malicious Judgement, also belonging to the Vice faction, is 
an outside force, operating in society at large. Among the Vir- 
tues, Faith, Repentance, and Love are forces operating within 
the heart, and Justification is a power from without. They have 
scarcely any part in the action, merely coming to the relief of 
Mary after she has been pardoned by Christ. The Lawe and 
Knowledge of Sinne are, strictly speaking, neither Virtues nor 
Vices, but Agents of Retribution, though the Lawe comes near 
taking the part of a Virtue. The latter represents a power acting 
from without, while Knowledge represents a force springing up 
in the heart. Christ and Simon are, of course, individuals. 

In the interpretation I shall leave the Bible story out of account 
and confine myself to the allegorical aspect of the play. Infi- 
delity, having sprung up in the heart, spon gives rise to the 
most wicked feelings and desires, — pride, greed, and lust. 

1 P. i6 (11. 287-291). Such language as this, referring to a literal occupation 
of the heart by vice, is, of course, a serious flaw in the allegory. There is, how- 
ever, an excuse for it here in the fact that later Christ literally casts the seven 
devils out of Mary. It is another example of the way in which the allegory is 
hampered by the Miracle element. 



Ii8 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The sinner continues his life of wickedness until he hears or 
reads the commandments of God, when a full knowledge comes 
to him of the hideousness of his past sin. He is in despair 
until he turns to Christ, who alone has power to relieve and 
forgive him. Then, with his repentance, his heart is imbued 
with faith and love, and he is justified in the sight of God. 

In the Morality of Albion, Knight'^ we are forced to make 
conjectures as to a great deal of the action, since the beginning 
and the end of the manuscript have disappeared. Fortunately, 
the remaining fragment gives enough to warrant us in making 
pretty confident generalizations on the play as a whole. That 
a rigid economy of actors was practised the following list of 
dramatis personae will show : 

Albion, Knight"] Principality 

Justice actually Peace 

Injury appear Maintenance 

Division J Rest 

Old Debate 
Double Device 
Dame Plenty 

That is, the author could not introduce all the figures that his 
scheme called for, but was compelled to limit his list of dramatis 
personae to the powers of a small company of four actors. 

When our fragment takes up the play. Injury and Justice are 
engaged in an argument. Injury is exerting himself to make 
Justice and Albion believe that he is Manhood, and Justice is 
rather suspicious of his honesty. But Albion, who is apparently 
of a trustful disposition, shows great anxiety that they should 
all be friends ; so Justice, still a little doubtful, consents at last 
to join hands with the supposed Manhood. After the recon- 
ciliation Albion and Justice go out, and Injury then explains his 
true character to the audience. 

1 Six Anonymous Plays, edited by John Fanner. The play was acted between 
1560 and 1565. 



are mentioned 
in text 



ALBION, KNIGHT 1 19 

Division appears and greets his friend and co-worker Injury. 
They exchange a few passes of coarse wit, in the usual manner 
of Vices, then fall to making plans for corrupting Albion. 

Injury. This Justice is a fellow of a far cast, 
And driveth such drifts to rule at the last : 
And Peace is his brother, of one degree, 
Which hath a fair daughter that is called Plenty : 
And Albion as long as Rest him treats. 
He loveth fair flesh of all meats : 
And it is a common saying that Justice, Peace and he 
Will conclude a marriage with fair Dame Plenty. 
And then will Albion, that old sot, 
With Rest and Peace, so on her dote 
That then she, by her and her friends, 
Shall sail in storms at all winds. 

It is the object of Injury and Division to prevent this union 

from taking place, and Injury makes the last speech of the 

fragment : 

Thou shalt teach him a wrong cross row : 

And tell him best it is, after thine advice. 

With mirth and prodigality him to exercise : 

And take of his own good while he may. 

Lest all at last be bribed away. 

Thus, though but a small part of the play is left, we can form 
fairly safe conjectures as to what the completed action is likely 
to have been, from the careful and elaborate plans laid down by 
the Vices for their campaign. We can feel quite certain that 
Albion was deceived and corrupted by the Vices, and almost 
equally sure that he was finally brought to his senses by Justice 
and led to a triumphant and permanent union with the " fair 
Dame Plenty." 

It may easily be seen that the play has strong political tend- 
encies.^ For this reason it is usually referred to as a controversial 

^ It \t.e., Albion, Knight^ turns chiefly on the want of concord between the 
lords spiritual and the lords temporal, and must date, I think, soon after Eliza- 
beth's accession. — Fleay, p. 66. 



I20 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Morality ; but the real basis for classification — technical struc- 
ture — decides its place as being in the present class. 

The only characters that can safely be discussed are the four 
that appear in person as actors, Albion, Knight, in the con- 
troversial aspect of the play, probably represents England,' 
but this is reading a secondary signification between the lines. 
As the play stands he is the regular highly universalized type 
of hero, the representative of mankind to be striven for. He 
has evidently begun in a state of goodness, since at the begin- 
ning of the fragment (which is manifestly almost the beginning 
of the action) he is on friendly terms with Justice, the Virtue 
or representative of goodness in the play. Justice is to be re- 
garded here solely as an internal force, — the sense of justice 
in the heart of man. Injury, the chief Vice, also represents a 
power within the heart. When he is striving to win the favor 
of Albion he poses as Manhood, which is the regular device of 
the Deadly Sin, Wrath ; so Injury is simply another name for 
Wrath. Division is practically the same sort of character, but 
he may be slightly differentiated as representing a tendency in 
the heart of Man to create division or discord. 

The fragment, then, being interpreted, presents to us Man at 
peace, with a desire to act justly toward his fellow-men.^ His 
sense of justice, however, becomes subordinated to the violent 
elements in his nature. In the mistaken belief that he is merely 

^ In this and the other plays with controversial tendencies outside of 
Class IV, the controversial element is merely incidental to the play. It may 
be expressed in the dialogue or, as in the present case, it may be a mere 
underlying element. But never except in the plays grouped in Class IV is it 
made the basis of the play ; and, except in the latter plays, it might be removed 
without seriously affecting the action. 

2 The fact that the human hero in these plays is universalized into a Type 
of the whole human race does not preclude the idea of fellow-mortals, though 
this idea is usually kept in the background. In the Castle of Perseverance, 
Humanum Genus is instructed how to act toward his fellow-men, and the same 
idea is introduced in several of the Moralities. 



THE TRIAL OF TREASURE 12 1 

asserting his manhood he allows himself to inflict injuries upon 
his neighbors. The fragment carries us no further, but we can 
readily forecast the degradation of man into a creature of dis- 
cords and strife, and his final awakening to a real sense of 
justice, with a determination to live forever in peace. Though 
this last is pure conjecture, we have abundant warrant for it 
from our knowledge of other plays of the same type. 

TJie Trial of Treasure ^ differs in one important respect from 
any other play of its class. The human hero, Just {i.e., the just 
man), leads an upright life from beginning to end. Though he 
is repeatedly assailed by Vices, he never once swerves from the 
paths of righteousness. This may add to our respect for the 
good Just, but it certainly contributes nothing to the interest of 
the play. The life in sin is what gives the touch of human inter- 
est to the Moralities. The author of the present play, wishing 
to picture a man consistently just or good, seeks a substitute for 
this by taking one of his personified vices. Lust, and depicting 
him from time to time as a vicious human character, surrounded 
by a set of. merry and wide-awake Vices. 

The play thus presents two motives, rather confusingly min- 
gled, — the allegorical soul-struggle, with a human hero, which 
forms the regular plot of the class under consideration, and an 
additional motive of the contrast of two lives, one good and the 
other evil, with poetic justice meted out at the end. This second 
motive occurs again in a Morality to be considered later. Like 
Will to Like, Quoth the Devil to the Collier, and also in the 
moral tragedy. The Nice Wanton. It is almost certainly due to 
French influence .^ 

1 Printed in 1567. The text used is in Dodsley, Vol. III. 

2 The earhest French MoraUty remaining is Bien AvisS, Mai Avisi, which 
was performed at Rennes in 1439. This play represents side by side the careers 
of Bien Avise and Mai Avise, two highly universalized type figures. Bien 
Avise is under the influence of Virtues through his whole life, he dies in the 
arms of Bonne Fin, and his soul is taken to heaven. Mai Avise consorts 



122 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The first, or English, motive is the more important and is 
the one that, on the whole, dominates the play. But the two 
motives are so closely connected that sometimes a single scene 
will jump rapidly from one to the other. In order to explain 
this effectively I shall have to present part of a scene between 
Just and Lust, which begins with an argument between two 
widely different types of mankind and ends with the successful 
attempt of the just man to throw off the lusts of the flesh : 

Enter Lust, like a gallatit, singing this song 

Heigho, care away, let the world pass, 
For I am as lusty as ever I was ; 
In flowers I flourish as blossoms in May, 
Heigho, care away ; heigho, care away ! 

Lust. What the devil ailed me to sing thus? 
I cry you mercy, by my faith, for ent'ring : 
Most like I have ridden on the flying Pegasus, 
Or in Cock Lord's barge I have been a vent'ring. 
Sing? why, I would sing if I were to do again. 
With Orpheus and Amphion I went to school : 
What ! lads must be lively attending on the train 
Of Lady Delectation, which is no small fool. 
Hey rouse, fill all the pots in the house ; 
Tush, man, in good fellowship let us be merry. 
Look up like a man, or it is not worth a louse ; 
Heigho, troly ; hey, dery, dery, 
Ha, pleasant youth and lusty juventus. 
In faith it is good to be merry this May : 

throughout with Vices, and he is finally strangled and handed over to the 
Devil. Another play, V Homme Juste et V Homme Mondain (presented in 1476) 
has the same motive. In this play the good man is called Juste, or le Juste, so 
the evidence for direct influence here is very strong. The French play repre- 
sents scenes in Hell, in Purgatory, and in Heaven after the death of the two 
heroes ; but The Trial of Treasicre, like the rest of the later English Moralities, 
is interested only in representing the present life. Cf. Petit de Julleville, His- 
toire du Theatre en France, IV, 39, 69, and Creizenach, I, 470. Creizenach 
states here that the motive of Bien Avise, Mai Avise is not represented in the 
English Moralities. 



THE TRIAL OF TREASURE 123 

For of man's living here there is no point endentus, 
Therefore a little mirth is worth much sorrow some say.^ 

Enter Just 

Just. But remember ye not the wise man's sentence ? 
It is better in the house of mourning to be 
Than in the house of laughter, where folly hath residence. 
For lightness with wisdom cannot agree ; 
Though many have pleasure in foolish fantasy^. 
Ensuing their inclination and lust, 
Yet much better is the life of one who is just. 

Lust. Sir, in this you seem against me to inveigh. 

Just. Nothing but reason, I think, I do say. 

Ltist. Marry, you shall have a nightcap for making the reason. 
Friend, have you not a piece of stock-fish to sell .'' 
I would you had a dish of buttered peason. 
By my faith, your communication likes me well. 
But, I beseech you, tell me, is not your name Just? 

Just. Yes, forsooth. 

Lust. And my name, thou shalt understand is Lust, 
And according thereto I am lusty indeed ; 
But I think thou hast drunk of Morpheus seed. 
Thou goest like a dromedary, dreamy and drowsy ; 
I hold twenty pound the knave is lousy ! 

Just. Mine apparel is not like unto thine. 
Disguised and jagged, of sundry fashion ; 
Howbeit, it is not gold always that doth shine, 
But corrupting copper of small valuation ; 
Too horrible besides is thy operation, 
Nothing more odious unto the just 
Than the beastly desires of inordinate lust.^ 

Lust. It is a shameful thing, as Cicero doth say, 
That a man his own acts should praise and commend ; 
Hypocrites accustom the like, day by day. 
Checking other men, when they do offend. 

1 Compare this entrance with that of the young man in Youth and in Lusty 
Juventus. 

2 It is possible to suppose — though I do not take this view — from the last 
three lines that Just for the moment regards his adversary as the quality of 
lust ; but, if so, Lust swings back to his previous character in his next speech. 



124 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Just. Yea, but it is an hard thing, saith the philosopher, 
For a foolish man to have his manners reprehended ; 
And even at this day it is come so far, 
God grant, for his mercy, it may be amended ! 
For tell a man now friendly of his fault. 
Being blasphemy, pride, or vile fornication. 
He will be as presumptuous as Haman the halt, 
And repay with revenge or else defamation : 
Thus few men a friendly monition will bear, 
But stoutly persist and maintain their ill ; 
And in noblemen's houses truly I do fear. 
There are too many have such forward will. 

Lust. Wounds and hearts, who can abide this? 
Nay, ye vile villain, I will dress you therefore ; 
Your lazy bones I pretend ^ so to bless, 
That you shall have small lust to prate any more. 

Just. Behold the image of incipient fools ! 
There ['re] not a few even now of thy property ; 
Until you be put into poverty's schools 
Ye will not forsake this foolish insolency. 

Lust, Nay, soft, with thee I have not made an end. 

{Draw out his sword) 

Just. The just against lust must always contend, ^ 
Therefore I propose to wrestle with thee, {put it tip) 
Who shall have the victory, straightway we shall see. 

Lust. When thou wilt, by his flesh, I shall hold the wag. 

( Wrestle., and let Lust seem to have the better at the first) 

Just. I know that Lust useth not little to brag. 

Lust. Thou shalt find me as mighty as Samson the strong. 

Just. Yea, the battle of lust endureth long. 

Lust. Wounds and flesh ! I was almost down on my back ; 
But yet I will wrestle till my bones crack. {Stay, and then speak) 

Just. The end of thy presumption now doth appear. 

Lust. Yet do what thou canst, I will not lie here ; 
No, by his wounds, you old doting knave ! 

{Cast him, and let hifn arise again) 

1 Intend. 

2 Up to this point the scene has presented Lust in the main, if not entirely, 
as the man actuated by lust, opposed to the just man. But from this speech 
on through the action following, the combat is that of the just man against the 
lusts of his flesh. 



THE TRIAL OF TREASURE 125 

Thinkest thou that Lust will be made a slave ? 
I shall meet you in Smithfield or else other-where, 
By his flesh and blood, I will thee not forbear ! 

Just. Not of my power I do thee expel, 
But by the might of his spirit that dwelleth in me : 
Inordinate lust with the just may not dwell, 
And therefore may not I accompany thee. 

Lust. Well, goodman Just, it is no matter, 
But, in faith, I pretend not with thee to flatter ; 
Though from thy company depart I must 
I shall live as much in wealthiness, I trust. 

Ifio out. He must drive him out) 

So ends the first struggle of the just, or good, man to conquer 
his base appetites. The proof that the fight just depicted has 
this allegorical significance is clinched by the soliloquy of Just 
after his victory : 

Where most wealth is, and most delectation, 
There Lust is commonly of most estimation ; 
For whereas wealth wanteth, idleness doth slake, 
For where idleness is. Lust parteth the stake. {Pause) 
Thus have you seen the conflict of the just, 
Which all good men ought to use and frequent ; 
For horrible are the fruits of inordinate lust. 
Which in some case resembleth Hydra the serpent, 
Whose head being cut off, another riseth incontinent. 
So, one of Lust's cogitations being cut away, 
There riseth up another, yea, many, we may say.^ 
It is requisite therefore that every degree 
Against this his lust both strive and contend ; 
And though, at the first, he seem sturdy to be, 
The Lord will convince ^ him for you in the end. 
Your cause unto him therefore wholly commend, 
Labouring to. avoid all inordinate lust. 
And to practice in life to live after the Just. 

In the next scene Lust appears with a group of Vices, and not 
as a patron of the Vices, but as one of their number. And so the 

1 This is, of course, to explain Lust's repeated returns to the fight just con- 
cluded, after repeated repulses from Just. ^ Conquer. 



126 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

play goes on presenting him in one aspect, then in another, 
until at last he is condemned by God's Visitation in these words : 
Thou incipient fool, thou hast followed thy lust, 
Disdaining the doctrine declared by Sapience. 

So it is in the character of " I'homme mondain " that Lust 
disappears from sight. 

This lengthy presentation of the two chief characters has 
been absolutely necessary for a clear understanding of the play ; 
but now, having cleared away the only real obstacles, we can 
proceed with an outline of the action. 

The prologue is delivered on the appropriate text, — which 
might be widened to a general text for all Moralities, — " Do 
all things to edify the congregation." Then enters Lust, attired 
like a gallant and singing a song suggestive of his entire free- 
dom from the cares of this world. After a rousing soliloquy, to 
which the foregoing song furnishes the keynote, he is interrupted 
by the stately Just, who puts an entirely new face on the situa- 
tion. Just feels more drawn to the " house of mourning " than 
to the " house of laughter," and he naturally enough concludes 
that any wise man would agree with him. Ergo, Lust, who has 
given indubitable proofs of his residence in the " house of 
laughter," must be a fool. Lust is not prepared to accept this 
conclusion tamely, and he attacks his censor vigorously, first 
with his tongue, and then with his sword. At the beginning of 
the latter encounter he seems to get the better of his opponent, 
but the upshot of the encounter is that Just conquers Lust and 
drives him off the stage. After commenting on the significance 
of his victory Just retires and Inclination comes in. 

Inclination has had a long and triumphant career, the impor- 
tance of which is not minimized in his narrative. When pres- 
ently he is joined by Lust and Sturdiness he shows a disposition 
to take a high hand with them ; but, after a bit of swordplay, 
they convince him that, although he may be competent to subdue 



THE TRIAL OF TREASURE 12/ 

" the mighty on the earth," yet he is not supreme in the realm 
of vice. But Lust generously reassures him, and the three 
friends are soon joined by Elation and Greedy-gut, who have 
come to swell the ranks of Lust. These companions of Lust 
swear to serve him in all his desires and sing a song expressive 
of their relations to him : 

Lust shall be led by me Inclination 

To Carnal Cogitation ; 
Where Lust is wholly led by me, 

He must fall to cupidity ; 
For carnal cares shall him assail, 

And speedily they shall prevail ; 
I, Sturdiness, will face it out 
In his cause, sturdy, stiff, and stout. 
Then Greedy-gut shall make him eat 
Both house and land like bread and meat ; 

Elation shall puff him high 

For to aspire above the sky ; 
Then natural and lordly Lust 
Shall with his power despise the Just.^ 

1 This whole scene is another good example of the combination of two 
motives, centering in the double character of Lust as, first, the Vice and, 
second, the man actuated by lust. At the beginning of the scene he is the 
Vice, surrounded by personifications of kindred vices ; at the close he is the 
lustful or worldly-minded man, accompanied by figures representing his in- 
clinations and desires. The speech of Sturdiness, which closes the scene, 
corroborates this latter part of the interpretation (p. 275): 

This Lust is the image of all wicked men, 

Which in seeking the world have all delectation ; 

They regard not God, nor his commandments ten, 

But are wholly led by their own inclination. 

First to inculcate with Carnal Cogitation 

And after to the desire of all worldly treasure, 

Which alone they esteem the fulness of pleasure. 

With Elation or Pride he is also associate, 

Which puffeth up his senses with presumption pestilent ; 

Then Gfeedy-gut maketh them continually to grate 

On the mock of this world, which he thinketh permanent. 

I, Sturdiness, to hear out all things am bent : 

Thus see you how men that are led by their lust, 

Dissent from the virtuous, goodly, and just. 



128 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

As this ungodly crew retires Just and Sapience enter. Sapience 
exhorts Just to be circumspect in the guidance of his Ufe, and 
Just in his virtuous and learned answers shows that he has no 
intention of doing anything else. They are interrupted by In- 
clination, who comes in to announce gleefully that Lust and 
Carnal Cogitation "in one bed doth lie," and then starts to 
retire hastily when he sees Just, whom he knows to be proof 
against his influence. But he is too late. Just and Sapience 
catch sight of him and intercept him. He attempts to conceal 
his identity by talking French, and the astute Sapience remarks, 

To deceive us now himself he doth prepare. 

Then he tries German, and finally makes a despairing appeal 
in his own person. But the inexorable pair seize him, put the 
bridle ""called Restraint" on him, and go out leaving him 
securely tied. 

Soon Greedy-gut comes tumbling in, and mistakes Inclination 
for a colt. After receiving a few vigorous kicks, however, his 
eyesight becomes bright enough to discern his old friend under 
the disguise. Inclination persuades him to hurry out for Lust, 
who alone is able to remove the bridle, and in a few moments 
Lust comes running in and sets him free. Lust then confides 
to his friend that his heart is on fire with love for the lady 
Treasure, and Inclination readily consents to lead him to the 
object of his desires. 

When they retire. Just, Trust, and Contentation appear. Just 
is in a very self-congratulatory mood, and is encouraged by his 
companions. Then they all cite examples from classical history 
and from the Bible to prove that worldly-minded men, who bend 
their energies toward the procuring of wealth and pleasure on 
earth, come to grief at the last, while 

God doth so guide the hearts of the just, 
That they respect chiefly the celestial treasure. 



THE TRIAL OF TREASURE 1 29 

Finally they pledge themselves to a continuance of friendship,^ 
and go out singing, " The man is blest that feareth God." 

Then Inclination comes back with the happy news of a match 
between Lust and Lady Treasure. Suddenly he breaks off with 

Hark, I hear Lust and my Lady Treasure. 
They are given to solace, singing, and pleasure. 

The happy lovers appear, assuring each other of ardent affec- 
tion and fidelity, while Inclination, by his asides, shows that he 
is quite conscious of the ephemeral nature of such a union. Lust 
reminds his lady that she has mentioned a brother of hers, named 
Pleasure, with whom he is very anxious to become acquainted. 
Treasure assures him that her brother will join them shortly, 
and in a few moments Pleasure appears singing. He greets 
Lust in friendly fashion and assures him that he will remain 
true to him as long as Lust retains Treasure. Lust is now 
in a state of ecstatic happiness and breaks into song in honor 
of his lady, when suddenly he is interrupted by the ominous 
entrance of God's Visitation. 

A stern rebuke is now imposed on the unfortunate Lust ; 
and, as God's Visitation talks on. Lust becomes more and more 
tortured in mind and in body. Then Pleasure is taken away to 
wait on Just, and Visitation, as he goes out, warns Lust that 
this is a foretaste of worse things in store for him. Lust has 

^ There is a good example here of what is fairly common in the Moralities, 
— the mingling of allegorical with literal speech. Just makes a statement of 
the allegorical relationship between himself and his companions (p. 386) : 

As I, being properly nominate Just, 
Am here associate with Contentation, 
So have I my whole felicity in Trust, 
Who illumineth my eyes to see salvation, 



and Trust replies ; 



Fear ye not, shortly you shall have consolation, 

If I were once grown in yoi-t to perfection. 

Even thus goeth it always with the children of election. 



I30 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

begun to take heart again, however, when Time enters and 
summons him away with Treasure : 

Botli Lust and Treasure come forth with speed 
Into the shop of the most miglity (iod. 
There shall you be l^catcn to powder indeed. 
And for your abusion feci his scouri^^e and rod. 

Then Just leads forward Inchnation, who is once more securely 
bridled. He is joined by Trust and Consolation ; and Trust, 
who is very fond of interpreting allegorical action, remarks : 

Most blessed and happy, I say, arc the just, 
Even because they restrain their own inclination. 

Consolation is presented to Just, who receives him lovingly, 
then goes out to put Inclination in prison. Time enters to re- 
port that Lust " is converted into dust," " and Treasure in like 
case is turned to rust." Then the triumphant Just reappears 
and complacently receives the congratulations and commenda- 
tions of Time, and the j^lay ends with an apology to the audience 
by Consolation, " sith somewhat tedious to you wc have been." 

Just and Lust, the two chief characters in the play, have 
already been explained. Of the other characters little need 
be said. They all represent abstractions, and all, excepting 
God's Visitation, Time, and Treasure, represent forces within 
the nature of Man. 

The action contains so much allegorical by-play that it would 
be hopeless to attempt to go into all the details of the interpre- 
tation. The main outline is this : The just man determines to 
lead a virtuous life. He has at first a hard struggle to subdue 
the desires of his flesh, but having gained one victory he finds 
it easier afterwards to persist in virtue. He attains wisdom by 
his sober and studious life, and rigorously practises self-restraint 
to stifle his inclinations. By this life he acquires a contented 
mind and a firm trust in the mercy of God with assurance of 



THE L ONGER THO U LI VEST 1 3 1 

his future salvation. On the other hand, the man who yields 
himself to his lusts obtains worldly pleasures and riches for a 
short time ; but soon his wealth is destroyed and he himself is 
sentenced by God to an eternity of punishment. 

TJie Longer Thou Lives t the Mo7'e Foole Thoic Art^ is the 
thought-compelling title of the next Morality on the list. From 
the fortunate circumstance of its being next to The Trial of 
Treasure, through the chronological arrangement of the list, it 
can be compared directly with that play in plot. In The Trial 
of Treasure the hero remained virtuous throughout the action. 
In the present play the hero, Moros ("a foole by interpretacion ") 
is depraved from start to finish, in spite of the frequent and vio- 
lent efforts of the Virtues to convert him. In every other Morality 
of this class we find the fluctuation between virtue and sin. 

The Prologue, in a long speech, indicates the purpose of the 
play, — to illustrate the evil results of bad rearing of children, 
and of youthful idleness. 

Holsom lessons now and than we shall enterlace, 
Good for the ignorant, not hurtfull to the wise ; 
Honest mirth shall com in, and appeare in place. 
Not to thaduancement, but to the shame of vice ; 
To extoU Vertue, without faile, is our devise. 

Thus the author, who, on the whole, has produced a very bright 
and readable play, takes care to notify the audience that, in spite 
of the apparently contradictory evidence of some details, his con- 
stant purpose is to be edifying. A good deal of " mirth" does 
come in, and nowadays we are too prudish to consider it all 
as strictly " honest." But these aspects of the Morality, even 
though we need not regard them as reformatory in the strict 
sense of the word, undoubtedly widened the appeal of the play 

1 Written by W. Wager. Edited by Brandl in the Jahrbiich der dentscken 
Shakespea7-e-Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI. Brandl dates the play 1559-1560, and 
Gayley, p. 310, agreeing with Fleay, 1 571-1576. 



132 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

in those days, and enabled the author to present his general 
commendation of virtue to many people who were human enough 
to wish to have their laugh out first ; and it is easy to imagine 
that the morality-loving English audience, after being comfortably 
assured that the coming " mirth " would be " not to thaduance- 
ment, but to the shame of vice," settled down to enjoy the mad 
pranks and questionable jokes without troubling much to enquire 
into their individual " honesty," 

After the prologue Moros enters, singing a foolish parody 
beginning, Brome, Brome on hill, 

The gentle Brome on hill hill. 

For this wanton waste of time he is sternly rebuked by Discipline, 
who quotes Latin proverbs to show him the foolishness of his 
conduct. Discipline is soon reinforced by Pietie and Exercita- 
tion, and the three labor hard to convert Moros to a useful and 
religious life, but without result. Moros is willing to listen to 
what they have to say, and is even cheerful over the situation. 
" I may tell you," he confides to them, 

my father did like me well, 
I am the wisest child that ever he had. 
Often times I haue herd him say or tell, 
My boy Moros will proue a wise Lad, 

and Exercitation responds despairingly : 

If you can remember your father's saying, 

Why can you not remember good lessons as well ? 

Finally the would-be instructors recite a lesson for Moros to 
repeat after them ; but the buoyant spirits of Moros get the 
better of him, and he wilfully confuses the lesson. At this the 
teachers lose their last shred of patience and fall to beating him, 
whereat he howls dolefully and promises to do better. Then he 
is committed to Pietie for schooling in religion and is given a 
Testament to study. Discipline throws out dark hints that a 



THE LONGER THOU LI VEST 133 

thrashing is the natural result of carelessness or backsliding, 
then Moros retires with Pietie. Exercitation and Discipline dis- 
cuss the possibility of a conversion. Discipline states hopefully : 

Vnto labour, vertue, and veritie 

I will hope him easely to winne ; 

but Exercitation is pessimistic. His conclusion is : 

For if he to any vertue be bente, 

I am much deceaued, truly, in my minde. 

The only remedy Discipline can suggest is to watch Moros and 
give him a sound thrashing if he falters by the way ; so the two 
worthies go out to spy on his actions. 

Idlenesse, " the parent of all vice," comes in to fulfill an 
engagement with Moros, and is joined by Incontinence and 
Wrath. They have all heard of the attempt to make a wise and 
good man of Moros, and are determined to offset this by their 
influence. Wrath is inclined to regard him as a confirmed fool 
already, but Idlenesse, who is shrewder, realizes that Moros has 
a small amount of wit which may be nourished into growth if 
he really comes under the influence of Discipline and his friends. 

But he shalbe a more foole yet 

When all we three be vnto him annexed. 

Therefore Idlenesse holds it advisable that all their names shall 
be changed. He is already known to Moros as Pastime, and he 
suggests that Incontinence be called Pleasure, whereat Inconti- 
nence in turn reminds Wrath of his usual disguise behind the 
name Manhode. "' In good faith," bursts out the irate Wrath, 

little needeth this devise, 
To be called by our names is as good : 
Doth he know what Idlenesse doth meane."* 
Knoweth he Incontinencie to be leacherie.'' 
He discerneth not cleane from uncleane. 
His minde is all set on foolerie. 

But Idlenesse carries the day. 



134 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

At this juncture Moros comes in, pretending to read a book, 
but in reality translating its contents into an unintelligible jargon, 
and at the same time keeping a shrewd weather-eye open for 
Discipline. He gladly joins the three Vices, who introduce 
themselves to him by their assumed names, and give him 
thorough instruction in various forms of sin. Idlenesse per- 
suades him to throw his book away, and gives him a pack of 
cards instead. Wrath presents him with a sword, with instruc- 
tions on the proper way to avenge an insult with it, and Moros 
is brandishing his new weapon with a lively appearance of man- 
liness when Discipline suddenly appears. Then his new-found 
courage quickly deserts him, and he throws away the sword and 
hides. His friends urge him to attack Discipline, but he is in a 
pitiful state of terror, and they finally go out, taking him with 
them, and leaving Discipline to comment on the evident results 
of lax training on the part of parents. 

After Discipline has made his mournful exit Fortune appears, 
proclaiming her power. Incontinencie joins her, and she tells 
him of her intention to raise Moros to a position of honor and 

wealth. 

Seeing that vulgares will me not prayse 
For exalting good men and sapient, 
I will get me a name an other wayes, 
That is, by erecting fooles insipient. 

When Moros next appears he is a man in the prime of life, 
a greater fool than ever, and enjoying the wealth which Fortune 
has sent him. His chief confidant and friend now is Ignorance, 
a very sage person, of the same general type as Folly in Mag- 
nyfycencc (who explains that he is no fool himself though he 
makes fools of others). With Ignorance, who introduces him- 
self as Antiquitie, are associated Impietie, alias Philosophic, and 
Crueltie, alias Prudence, Moros receives them unquestioningly 
and follows all their precepts. 



2 'HE L UJS GER THO U LI VEST 1 3 5 

But the Virtues have not yet given over the struggle. While 
Moros is conversing with his friend Ignorance he is interrupted 
by Discipline, who enters with the oft-repeated denunciation, 
"The longer thou livest the more fool thou art." The much 
befooled Moros goes up to his censor with a great show of 
bravery, and answers his rebukes with railing and curses ; but 
he has not yet imbibed sufficient courage to draw his sword, as 
Ignorance urges him to do. The two friends make their escape 
from the merciless tongue of Discipline, who takes care to 
impress his moral upon the audience before he retires. 

There is now a lull in the action. During this time Moros is 

supposed to be advancing toward old age, and to abridge the 

period People comes in with the nai've explanation : 

My name is People, for I represent 
All the people where Moros doth dwell, 

then proceeds to explain the wicked and useless life that Moros 
is spending among his villainous friends. 

At last Moros appears again, an old man, and looking furi- 
ously for someone to punish. While he is raging about search- 
ing for a victim, suddenly God's Judgement approaches and 
strikes him down. Then Confusion comes in and is ordered by 
God's Judgement to complete the punishment. 

Confusion, spoil him of his aray, 
Geue him his fooles coate for him due : 
His chayne and his staffe take thou away, 
In sorow and care for euer let him rue. 

Moros, still unrepentant, is led away by Confusion, and God's 
Judgement advises the audience to take warning by the example 
of this foolish man. He becomes warmed up to his subject, and 
then generously concludes that his audience may have had 
enough moralizing for one day. 

Many thinges moe of fooles we could talke, 
But we have detained long our audience. 



136 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Exercitation, Pietie, and the inexorable Discipline are of 
another mind. They feel that the audience can stand, or should 
be made to stand, a good deal more of virtuous teaching ; and 
in consequence they occupy the final scene with much good 
advice on the text of Moros's downfall, and conclude with 
prayers for the Queen. 

The play, in the absence of the usual stages of wickedness, 
conversion, and so on, divides itself according to another scheme, 
into the three stages of youth, manhood, and old age. The 
allegory is unusually clear and easy to follow, and there is no 
difficulty in explaining the nature and office of every character. 
Fortune and God's Judgement are external powers brought to 
bear upon the hero, and all the other figures — except People, 
who appears but once in the office of chorus — represent abstract 
qualities struggling for the soul of Moros. The Prologue, as 
usual, makes plain the moral (II, 52-58) : 

By him ^ we shall declare the unthrifty abuse 
Of such as had lever to Folly and Idlenes fall, 
Then to hearken to Sapience when he doth call : 
Their processe, how their whole life they do spende, 
And what shame they come to at the last ende. 
Wherefore this our matter we entitle and name : 
The longer thou livest the more Foole thou arte. 

So much for the text. Now for the sermon. The boy who is 
foolishly brought up by his parents is likely to remain foolish 
and vicious to the end. When he becomes old enough to under- 
stand the danger of idleness he still remains true to the teach- 
ings of his childhood, smothers all the better impulses toward 
an active life of piety and self-restraint that spring up in his 
heart, and steadily adds to his vicious habits. He is ignorant, 
because he refuses to study ; and, as he advances in life, the 
irresponsible idleness of boyhood gives place to cruelty, lust, 

1 /.^., Mores. 



THE CONFLICT OF CONSCIENCE 137 

and impiety. The accession of wealth only gives him better 
opportunities to gratify his evil desires. But in his dishonest 
old age he is stricken down by the judgment of God, His 
wealth disappears, and he spends his last days in sorrow and 
poverty, though unrepentant to the end. 

The play, though belonging to the present class, has also affili- 
ations with Class II, as illustrating the special text indicated in 
the title. 

The Conflict of Conscience ^ is the last Morality of this par- 
ticular type. It is bitterly anti-Catholic in sentiment, without 
being avowedly controversial ; and this bitterness is expressed 
mainly by placing all the Vices of the play in the common 
service of the Devil and the Pope. 

As I have explained in a previous chapter,^ the Morality is 
based upon a tale of the apostasy of Francis Spira, or Spiera, an 
Italian lawyer ; but this tale is used by the author merely as a 
starting point, — a suggestion for the motive of the play, — and 
it can be practically neglected here. The hero, Philologus, is no 
longer the Italian lawyer, but a type — to all intents and purposes 
a highly universalized type. The author, however, still somewhat 
restrained by the consciousness of the actual case of apostasy 
that he started from, explains his hero as a type of the men 
who are always ready to talk about the word of God, but are 
prone to lapses in conduct — after all, a sufficiently common 
type. The same restraint — speaking always from the point of 
view of the Morality — is felt in the introduction of friends 
and family for the hero ; but these persons are so much subordi- 
nated as to be almost negligible, and the Morality atmosphere 
predominates throughout. 

1 Dodsley, Vol. VI. The play is by Nathaniell Woodes, and was printed in 
1581, though Collier, in a preface to the present edition, conjectures that it was 
written about 1 570. For a preliminary discussion of the play and its sources 
see pp. 11-13, above. 

* See p. II, above. 



138 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The Prologue explains, at some length, the motives of ** our 
Author " in writing the play, and in planning it just as he did. 
The plot, as the audience is informed, has been drawn from an 
historical event, but the play is universalized in its treatment 
because comedy is not permitted to discuss the vices of one 
private man, and because, if the play were written about one 
individual, the audience might fail to apply the moral to them- 
selves. Some '" honest mirth " is to be mixed in, but not of a 
kind to exceed the bounds of decorum. Having thus paved the 
way for an intelligent enjoyment of the play, the Prologue retires. 

He is followed by Satan, who in a long speech tells the 
audience of his power in the world and of his methods of cor- 
rupting men. He is loud in praise of the Pope, who is his 
"darling dear," his "eldest boy," and who is upheld by two 
stout champions. Avarice and Tyranny. But as people of late 
have been plotting to overthrow the Pope, Satan decides to send 
Hypocrisy to his aid. 

When Satan retires, the two friends, Mathetes and Philologus, 
come forward discussing the relations between God and his 
people. Mathetes is much puzzled by the afflictions which are 
constantly undergone by the sincere followers of God. History, 
he says, is full of instances of suffering and martyrdom in the 
cause of Christianity, and these seem naturally to indicate that 
God is angry with his people. What he chiefly wishes to obtain 
is some method of discerning the difference between God's 
wrath and his love. 

Philologus, who is laboring under no such doubts, readily 
undertakes to explain away the mystery for his friend, 

for because it is most chiefly pertinent 
Unto mine office to instruct and teach each christian wight 
True godliness, and show to them the path that leadeth right 
Unto God's kingdom, where we shall inherit our salvation, 
Given unto us from God by Christ our true propitiation. 



THE CONFLICT OF CONSCIENCE 139 

He not only admits what Mathetes says about the sufferings of 
God's elect, but goes farther and piles up instances from Scrip- 
ture and history to show that Christians in all ages of the world 
endured bitter trials for the faith. But the explanation is quite 
easy to omniscient Philologus, and from the mass of his learned 
argument Mathetes extracts the following correct conclusion : 

This is the sum of all your talk, if that I guess aright, 
That God doth punish his elect to keep their faith in ure, 

Or lest that, if continual ease and rest enjoy they might, 

God to forget through haughtiness frail nature should procure : 

Or else by feeling punishment our sins for to abjure ; 
Or else to prove our constancy ; or lastly, that we may 
Be instruments, in whom his might God may abroad display. 

Having gleaned the desired instruction on this point, Mathetes 
becomes conscious of a more practical yearning. " It is now high 
dinner-time," he suggests. "My stomach meat doth crave." So 
the two depart amicably on this new quest. 

Hypocrisy now arrives on the scene and treats the audience 
to a disquisition on his nature and properties. Avarice and 
Tyranny soon join him. The three Vices are all in the service 
of the Devil, but each is ambitious to be leader, and they fall 
into a long and tiresome wrangle on the question of supremacy. 
But they are unable to come to any conclusion, for the simple 
reason that no one of the three will admit himself to be in any 
way inferior to either of the others, so they finally give the prob- 
lem up and join forces in the common service of the Pope. The 
duty that now lies nearest them is to furnish all possible assist- 
ance to the Pope's Legate, who has just come to the country. 
Hypocrisy sees that his friends' names will mar all if they are 
openly proclaimed, so, for the nonce, he dubs Tyranny Zeal, and 
calls Avarice Careful Provision. 

Philologus again appears for a short scene, during which he 
soliloquizes on the danger that he and his family are likely to 



I40 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

incur from the arrival of the Pope's Legate. Realizing that if 
he once comes into the power of the Legate he must either 
give up his faith or suffer ruin and torture, he takes his leave 
in considerable trepidation of spirit. 

The Vices return in high feather to announce their favorable 
reception by the Pope's Legate. They have all been placed in 
high positions and are making their power felt throughout the 
country. While they are exulting in their good fortune, Cacon, 
a priest with a broad Scotch accent, joins them. He is in 
thorough sympathy with the work they are doing ; and after a 
friendly conversation over the affairs of the church, he informs 
them that one Philologus, a learned man, has been making him- 
self unduly busy in his zeal against the Pope and the time- 
honored customs of the Catholic Church. Tyranny and Avarice 
are at once anxious to get their clutches on the offender ; so 
Cacon undertakes to lead them to his house, while Hypocrisy 
goes out to fulfill an engagement with his friend the Legate. 

In the next scene the Legate, who is accompanied by 
Hypocrisy and Avarice, issues an order to bring forth the 
heretic whom they have captured, and Tyranny appears, 
leading Philologus. The Cardinal orders Philologus to abjure 
his faith, and a long debate follows, in which Philologus holds 
stoutly to his religion. The united efforts of the Cardinal and 
his three followers are not enough to shake him, and at last 
Hypocrisy sends Tyranny for Sensual Suggestion to add the 
weight of his arguments. Sensual Suggestion, on his arrival, 
tries to appeal to Philologus by telling him of his weeping wife 
and children. Philologus is visibly moved, and his tempter 
goes on heaping one argument upon another, finally making 
him an offer of worldly joys and riches, and giving him a 
mirror in which to behold the pleasures that are in store for 
him if he will but give up his stubborn adherence to his 
religion. Upon looking into the mirror Philologus breaks into 



THE CONFLICT OF CONSCIENCE 141 

transports of joy at the bliss there revealed. His virtue is 
overcome, and he willingly resigns his faith for the promised 
delights of the mirror. Then he departs, with Sensual Sugges- 
tion for a companion, to enjoy his new life. 

The next scene shows the hero still in the company of his 
new-found friend. But Spirit appears and gives him a solemn 
warning of the danger he is in. 

Let not suggestion of thy flesh thy conscience thee betray, 
Who doth conduct thee in the path that leadeth to all woe. 
Weigh well this warning given from God, before thou further go. 
And sell not everlasting joy for pleasures temporal, 
From which thou soon shalt go, or they from thee bereaved shall. 

Philologus is troubled, but Sensual Suggestion at once presents 
his glass, and Philologus, seeing " nought else but pleasure, 
pomp, and wealth " within, is reassured. Then appears a more 
serious troubler, Conscience, who denounces him roundly and 
seeks in every way to draw him from his worldly life. At this 
attack Philologus is deeply moved, and for a time almost gives 
way to despair ; but Sensual Suggestion is still able to prevail, 
though it takes his most artful reasonings to induce his com- 
panion to leave Conscience. 

But a more powerful influence is soon to appear and wreck 
this life of sensual delights. Philologus is enjoying himself 
with his two sons when Horror makes his entrance and pro- 
nounces his curse upon him : 

My name is called Confusion and Horror of the mind, 

And to correct impenitents of God I am assigned, 

And for thou dost despise God's mercy and his grace, 

And wouldst no admonition take by them that did thee warn, 

Neither when Conscience counselled thee thou wouldst his words embrace, 

Who would have had thee unto God obedience true to learn ; 

Nor couldst between Suggestion's craft and Conscience' truth discern : 

Behold, therefore, thou shalt of me another lesson hear, 

Which (will thou, nill thou) with torment of Conscience thou shalt bear. 



142 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Then the mirror furnished by Sensual Suggestion is trans- 
formed into the "glass of deadly desperation." 

From now on Philologus is plunged in gloom. Theologus 
and Eusebius visit him and try to re-convert him, but in vain. 
Philologus pronounces a prayer dictated by them, but even while 
he repeats the forms of devotion, his heart is filled with hatred 
and blasphemy, and at last he retires in the blackest despair. 

In a final scene Nuntius appears and explains to the audience 
that Philologus, after suffering for thirty weeks, during which 
time he has refused all food and has attempted to hang himself, 
" is now converted unto God with many bitter tears." 

The nature of the hero, Philologus, has already been dis- 
cussed. Of the other characters only seven are strictly neces- 
sary, or even desirable, for the play as a Morality ; that is, — 
Conscience, Spirit, Hypocrisy, Tyranny, Avarice, Suggestion, 
and Horror. The others (with the exception of Satan, who 
appears only once, at the beginning of the play) are introduced 
in memory of the story behind the play. From the point of 
view of the unbiased student of the drama, The Conflict of 
Conscience presents a decided advance from the old-fashioned 
Morality toward the drama of real life ; but from the biased 
point of view of the student of Moralities, who through long 
familiarity has learned by successive stages to endure, to pity, 
and to embrace, the present play is a good Morality sadly 
encumbered by the too solid flesh of many individuals. 

Of the strictly Morality characters. Hypocrisy, Tyranny, and 
Avarice are the most active. They are, needless to say. Vices ; 
and since after a prolonged argument they themselves are 
unable to settle the question of preeminence, it would be a 
difficult matter for us to decide it for them. But as Hypocrisy 
is the first to appear and address the audience the presumption 
is in favor of Hypocrisy as chief Vice. These three cannot be 
regarded as representing vices in the heart of the hero. They 



THE CONFLICT OF CONSCIENCE 143 

do not sue for his favor, which is the allegorical method of 
representing qualities, vicious or virtuous, as springing up in 
the heart. They are instrumental in persuading and coercing 
Philologus to renounce his faith, and thus represent forces 
abroad in the land.^ Suggestion, or Sensual Suggestion, on 
the other hand, represents a vice of the heart, and he becomes 
the follower and confidant of the apostate Philologus. 

Spirit and Conscience are the two Virtues, and they, of 
course, represent internal forces for good.^ Horror is an 
Agent of Retribution. 

The interpretation of the allegory — ignoring the elements 
that make for the drama of real life — is this : The religion of 
man is too likely to take the form of zeal for discussion of the 
word of God, and to lack the element of constancy which up- 
holds the possessor in the face of worldly persecution and the 
temptations of worldly prosperity. These may be resisted for 
a time, but as a result of repeated attacks and repeated tempta- 
tions the unstable Christian becomes wickedly desirous of tem- 
poral ease and pleasures, and at last resigns his piety to obtain 
them. His conscience and his inner knowledge of what is 
right cause him considerable disquiet at times, but he is now 
so enamored of the pleasures of sense that he persists in them 
in spite of his inner promptings. Retribution comes at last, 
however, when his eyes are opened to the real wickedness of 
his life. He is overcome by horror of his sin, and can derive 
no comfort from earthly assurances of God's mercy. His only 
chance now for salvation is in the direct intervention of God. 

1 The fact that they are in the service of the Pope is of no significance here. 

"^ It is interesting to notice the consistency with which the author makes 
Sensual Suggestion the only one of the Vices to come into contact with Spirit 
and Conscience. 



144 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

2. Conflict for the Possession of Man Intellectual 

The Interlude of the Four Elements ^ is the only surviving 
example of a class of plays which one might easily suppose to 
have been popular in that age of didacticism. As the case 
stands now, this is the only existing English Morality where 
Virtues strive to win man over to a life of study in the face of 
constant opposition on the part of Vices. It must not be for- 
gotten, however, that it is a technical distinction that makes 
this play stand alone. The three " Wit " plays of the following 
subdivision exhibit exactly the same attitude, that is, a desire 
to induce study rather than virtue in the strict sense of the 
term, the difference being that in the " Wit " plays the per- 
sonified intelligence of Man is the hero instead of the type 
figure Man, 

To the twentieth-century mind the Four Elements sounds 
the base string of dullness ; but we must attempt to realize that 
an elementary lesson in physical geography may have been no 
less replete with interest to the early sixteenth-century listener 
than the long-deferred account of the North Pole is to us. 

The play is introduced in a long speech by the Messenger, 
who complains of the ignorance and frivolity of the times. The 
Greeks and Romans, as well as learned clerks of other nations, 
he declares, wrote many works useful for edification. But in 
England there are many persons, of noble as well as of mean 
birth, who can understand no language but English ; therefore 
the useful works of other nations should be translated into 
English so that all can have the benefit of them. As to the 
subject of this play, continues the Messenger, there are many 
men nowadays who can barely read and write, and yet they 
think it no shame to spend their time in composing ballads, or 
books on love, " or other matter not worth a mite," and 

1 Printed 1519. Reprinted in Dodsley, Vol. I. 



INTERLUDE OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS 145 

Why should not then the author of this interlude 
Utter his own fantasy and conceit also, 
As well as divers other nowadays do ? 

The " fantasy " of the author, as his Messenger explains, is to 
instruct the audience in some plain matters of God's creation, 
so that those who presume to discuss the mysteries of God may 
not remain ignorant of " these visible things inferial." Having 
thus eased his mind, the melancholy Messenger departs. 

Then Nature, Studious Desire, and Humanity appear, and 
Nature delivers a speech upon his own functions ^ and on the 
character of the four elements. Humanity's curiosity is much 
stimulated, and he begs to be taken under Nature's guidance. 
Thus encouraged. Nature proceeds with a lesson on physical 
geography, which so delights Humanity that he thinks he can 
never have enough of this pleasant learning ; so Nature pre- 
sents him with Studious Desire for an attendant, and departs 
with a promise to return and instruct Humanity in more "' high 
points of cunning." Studious Desire continues the physical 
geography lesson for the delectation of the eager Humanity. 
But when the teacher insists on the roundness of the earth 
he is forcing a pill on Humanity which the latter will hardly 
swallow. Studious Desire is unable to convince him, and has to 
fall back at last on the authority of " a man called Experience," 
who is able to prove the matter beyond a doubt. Humanity is 
at once aflame with desire to meet Experience, but at this point 
they are interrupted by the entrance of Sensual Appetite. 

1 As Nature defines himself here he is not quite the same as Nature in the 
Morality of that name. The latter figure really represents human nature ; the 
former, the active principle of external nature. This is the explanation : 

So, He by His goodness hath ordained and created 

Me here his minister, called Nature Naturate 

Wherefore I am the very naturate nature, 

The immediate minister for the preservation 

Of everything in his kind to endure, 

And cause of generation, and corruption 

Of that thing that is brought to destruction (p. lo). 



146 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

This merry Vice at once falls to reviling Studious Desire, 
and warns Humanity that he is in very bad company, — 

For if ye knew him as well as I, 
Ye would not use his company 
Nor love him in no wise. 

Studious Desire remonstrates indignantly, but he is no match 
in wits for his tormentor. Humanity is soon persuaded that his 
health and happiness demand that he should take an outing 
with Sensual Appetite, and he dismisses his teacher with an 
apologetic promise to return to him. 

Sir, I pray you be content, 
It is not utterly mine intent 
Your company to exile ; 
But only to have communication, 
And a pastime of recreation 
With this man for a while. 

Studious Desire goes out very meekly, and Sensual Appetite 
calls loudly for the Taverner. This worthy appears and is 
ordered to prepare a feast ; but as he is in too jocular a mood 
to regard the order seriously, a war of wits follows, mainly be- 
tween him and Sensual Appetite. Finally, however, the jovial 
Taverner is induced to recognize the real need for viands, and 
he hurries out to prepare his feast, with Humanity and Sensual 
Appetite following at a more leisurely pace. Then, lest the 
audience should become demoralized along with Humanity, 
Experience comes in with Studious Desire and gives him a 
long lesson on geography, from the map. 

While the good pair are thus engaged. Humanity, with his 
friend, happens upon them. Sensual Appetite begins, as usual, 
to ridicule and revile his opponents. But Humanity is glad to 
make the acquaintance of Experience ; and, when the latter 
says that he cannot remain while Sensual Appetite is there. 
Humanity requests the Vice to retire for a season. Then 



INTERLUDE OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS 147 

Experience begins the long-promised exposition on the round- 
ness of the earth. 

But before Humanity is convinced, we come, unfortunately, to 
a gap of eight leaves in the manuscript of the play. Crossing 
this gap, we reach a conversation between Sensual Appetite 
and Ignorance. Ignorance is proclaiming that he is " a lord of 
greater puissance than the king of England or France," and 
Sensual Appetite breaks in with a bragging tale of the number 
of people he has killed in a " shrewd fray." Then they begin 
to wonder what has become of Humanity, and finally discover 
him sleeping in a corner, presumably wearied with study. 
Ignorance is for cutting off his head at once, but Sensual 
Appetite thinks it would not be worth while to take such 
violent action ; 

For he is but an innocent, lo ! 
In manner of a fool. 

For as soon as I speak to him again, 
I shall turn his mind clean, 

And make him follow my school.^ 

They awake Humanity, and he arises in a state of great will- 
ingness to enjoy their society. Sensual Appetite goes out and 
fetches a company of dancers. After the song and dance 
Ignorance takes the floor and sings a foolish, incoherent song 
about Robin Hood. 

In the midst of this revelry Nature comes back and sternly 
rebukes Humanity. But at this point the manuscript is again 
mutilated, and ends imperfectly ; so we miss the conclusion of 
what was probably the Final Conversion scene. 

The motive, it will be seen, is very simple. It represents 
the battle of conflicting feelings in the mind of man. The 

1 This open contempt of the Vices for their human quarry is very unusual. 
They usually preserve the outward appearance, at least, of great respect towards 
Man, and show a constant desire, both before him and behind his back, to 
prove attractive in his eyes. 



148 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

characters are easily assigned their places, since all the Virtues 
and Vices, when reduced to literal terms, have their dwelling 
exclusively within the mind. The Messenger, of course, may be 
neglected, as acting merely the part of Prologue, and the Tav- 
erner, as being the representative of a class, who is here intro- 
duced for the sake of his humor, but without significance in the 
plot. Humanity is the gemis homo, the human hero who is the 
object of strife. Nature Naturata is simply what his name indi- 
cates.^ Studious Desire and Experience, the representatives of 
goodness, are pitted against Sensual Appetite and Ignorance, 
the representatives of evil, from the intellectual point of view. 
All four stand for internal forces. 

The lesson that the audience would gather from this play 
can now be read into the following interpretation with prob- 
ably about the same amount of ease with which the audience 
of the time read it into the allegorical representation. Man 
gets his first knowledge of the world by simple observation 
of nature. By this he is stimulated to go deeper into useful 
studies, and all would be well but for his lack of experience, 
which makes him rather unstable and inclined to scepticism. 
While in this state he weakly resigns his studies, obeys the 
dictates of his sensual appetites, and for a time leads an igno- 
rant and vicious life. But his former taste of study has not 
been in vain, and in the midst of his idleness and dissipation 
he decides to return to the work which was formerly so inter- 
esting to him. With the added advantage of experience Man 
seems now to be devoted to a life of study ; but he is still prone 
to the follies of the world, and in a period of weariness result- 
ing from overstudy he again gives rein to his passions and 
lapses into a state of vice and ignorance.' 

^ See p. 145, note 1, above. 

2 The final regeneration of man, which any student of the Moralities would 
feel confident is to follow here, can only be conjectured, since the manuscript 
is imperfect. 



WISDOM, WHO IS CHRIST 149 

3. Conflict for the Possession of Man represented 

MERELY BY OnE OR MoRE PERSONIFIED ATTRIBUTES 

In the final subdivision of this most important class of 
Moralities the human hero ceases to appear, and his place 
is taken by abstract representations of the mind or soul of 
man, or both. In the '' Wit " plays, which constitute three 
fifths of this group, the effect is almost the same as if Man 
himself were introduced as the object of strife, but in the 
Morality of Wisdom, who is Christ^ the effect is very different. 

Instead of the simple human hero, we have in this play 
Anima, or the Soul, with her attendant train of the Five 
Wyttes, arrayed as " five vergynes," and " the 3 Powers of 
every Christian Soul," Mynde, Wylle, and Understondyng. 
This formidable array of human attributes seems, at first, to 
threaten complications in the plot ; but the action is kept fairly 
simple by the fact that there is only one active representative 
of evil, Lucyfer, pitted against only one representative of good- 
ness, Wysdom, or Christ. There is, therefore, strictly speak- 
ing, no Vice in the play, this being one of the rare occasions 
when the devil himself plays the part of chief tempter.^ There 
are whole herds of Vices in the service of the corrupted Mynde, 
Wylle, and Understondyng, but these, appearing only as silent 
retainers, are not to be regarded as real actors. The only 
representative of goodness, also, is the real figure of Christ 
thinly veiled as the personified abstraction of wisdom.^ 

Wysdom first appears and gives an account of himself. His 
name, he explains, is " everlastynge Wysdom," which name 
applies to each of the three persons of the Trinity, but more 

^ The Macro Plays, edited by Furnivall and Pollard. Probably produced 
between 14S0 and 1490. 

2 The only other occasion is in the Morality Mankind. 

* Christ is also referred to as " Wysdam " in the Salutation and Conception 
scene of the Coventry cycle. 



ISO THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

especially to the Son, who is both God and Man. Then the 
Soul comes in, kneels before Wysdom, and confesses her love 
for him. A long conversation follows, on the nature of wisdom 
and of love. Wysdom expounds the relation of the soul to God, 
and the origin and nature of the seven sacraments. He asks 
the Soul for her heart and obedience, which she joyfully grants. 
The five wits, arrayed as five virgins, enter and receive their 
instructions from Wysdom, who then reminds the Soul that 

Thre myghtis every cresten sowU has, 
Wyche bethe applyede to J>e trinyte.^ 

^ P. 41. This play has an unusual amount of literal, in place of allegorical, 
discussion, and thus is a very imperfect allegory. In the above scene Mynde, 
Wylle, and Understondyng speak of themselves, and are spoken of, as human 
faculties rather than as allegorical figures. When, for instance, Wylle says 
(p. 42) 

And I of J^e scull am )pe wyll ; 

Off }>e godhede lyknes & fygure. 

Wyth goode wyll no man may spyll 

Nor without goode wyll of blys be sure, 

he is using literal, and not allegorical, language. The only point of connection 
with allegory is that the man on the stage speaks in the first person. In order 
to be consistently allegorical Wylle would have to speak of himself as a com- 
panion or a blood relation of the Soul. 

This inconsistency appears from time to time through the whole play. 
When Lucyfer is planning to corrupt Mynde, Wylle, and Understondyng, 
he says (p. 47) : 

To )?e mynde of ^e soule I xall mak suggestyun, 
Ande brynge hys wndyrstondynge to delectacion, 
So \>at hys wyll make confyrmacion. 

It is only when Lucyfer (arrayed as " a galaunt ") tempts them that we get 
really allegorical speech. He incites Wylle to a life of enjoyment (p. 51) : 

Therfor, Wyll, I rede yew inclyne ; 
Lewe yowur stodyes, J>ow [\>ey] ben dywyn ; 
Yowur prayers, yowur penance, of Ipocryitis \>e syne, 
Ande lede a comun lyff. 

But a few lines further on, when Lucyfer produces serious arguments in favor 
of his advice, he assures Wylle : 

The Wyll of \>e soule hathe fre dominacion. 



WISDOM, WHO IS CHRIST 151 

In answer to this suggestion Mynde, Wylle, and Understondyng 
present themselves humbly to Wysdom for guidance, and he 
requests each to give a full account of his character. When 
these explanations are concluded Wysdom gives them a solemn 
warning against the World, the Flesh, and the Devil, their 
three deadly enemies, and exhorts them to remain loyal to him- 
self. Then, after more eulogy of Wysdom by the Soul, the 
whole company retires. 

Lucyfer now appears, and proclaims that he was once an 
angel, but is now lowest in Hell. He plans to corrupt the 

Then, after Lucyfer has accomplished his work, and the Soul appears, dis- 
figured by sin, Wysdom points to her and says to Mynde (p. 65) : 

Se howe ye have dysvyguryde yowur soule I 
Be-holde yowur selff ; loke veryly in mynde I 

Here, instead of Mynde's being one of the " thre myghtis " of the Soul, he is 
for the moment elevated into the position of a man, with a mind and a soul ; 
and the Soul, wrho has previously been spoken of in literal language as being 
a part of man, and including mind, is now referred to as the soul of the man 
Mynde, whose mitid and sottl are degraded by vice. Wysdom continues his cen- 
sure of the degraded Mynde (p. 65) : 

As many dedly synnys as ye have vsyde, 
So many deullys in yowur soule be. 
Be-holde wat ys Jjer-in reclusyde I 
Alas, man ! of \>\ soule have pyte 1 

Shortly after this, the Soul, convicted of sin, speaks of herself as a person 
having a soul, of which the tnind, will, and understanding are parts (p. 68) : 

To owur modyr, holy chyrche, I wyll resort, 
My lyff pleyn schewenge to here syght. 
With mynde, vndyrstondynge, & wyll ryght, 
Wyche of my sowll t)e partyes be. 

This discussion might be carried further, but these are the main points of 
confusion in the allegoiy. The only consistent allegorical scenes in the play 
are those depicting Mynde, Wylle, and Understondyng leading a life of sin. 
This same sort of allegorical confusion appears, to some extent, in a great 
many of the Moralities, but never in anything like the abundance that we find 
here ; and, in this play, the special confusion is largely the result of personi- 
fying four related attributes of Man and presenting them as common objects 
of strife. 



152 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Soul by tempting Mynd, Wylle, and Understondyng to sin, 
and for this purpose retires to array himself as a " goodly 
galont." When he returns he is joined by Mynde, Wylle, and 
Understondyng, who are busily engaged in proclaiming their 
loyalty to God, and their intention to live in contemplation of 
His goodness. A discussion follows on the relative merits of 
the active and the contemplative life. Lucyfer urges that there 
is a time for prayer and a time for worldly labor and enjoy- 
ment. Did Christ live in contemplation .? he asks, and Mynde 
is obliged to answer, " I suppos not, by my relacion." The 
three companions are completely confused by Lucyfer's subtle 
arguments, and are soon brought to admit that " man may be 
in the worlde, and be ryght goode." 

After this it is all smooth sailing for Lucyfer. He persuades 
them to leave their studies and penance and go out into the 
world, where they can dress well, live well, and be happy with 
their fellow-men. Then, with final instructions to beware of 
preachers, who are wolves in sheep's clothing, and a repeated 
exhortation to get all the pleasures that the world affords, he sends 
them out, and remains to exult over his mastery of the Soul.^ 

The next scene shows how completely and unreservedly 
Lucyfer's instructions have been followed out by Mynde, Wylle, 
and Understondyng. These three friends, who a short time 
ago took all their pleasure in communion with God, now talk 
of nothing but fine clothes, money, and wenches. Mynde calls 
in his train of followers, consisting of Indignation, Sturdynes, 
Males (Malice), Hastynes, Wreche, and Dyscorde. He himself, 

1 The Devil and the world are thus made to figure in the downfall of Man, 
though the world is not allegorically represented. But Wysdom has warned 
the Soul and her " thre myghtis " against the three enemies of Man, i.e.., the 
World, the Flesh, and the Devil, so the flesh is referred to by Lucyfer as par- 
ticipating in the work, though indirectly (p. 47) : 

And the flesche of man that ys so changeable, 
That wyll I tempte, as 1 gees. 



WISDOM, WHO IS CHRIST 153 

he says, is called Mayntennance. The six followers of Mynde 
go through a dance, then give way to the attendants of Under- 
stondyng, who are called Wronge, Sleyght, Dobullnes, Falsnes, 
Raveyn, and Dyscheyit (Deceit), and who make up the Holborn 
Quest. Understondyng then explains that he, the leader and 
" fownder " of the Quest, is called Perjury. After these merry 
lads go through their dance, Wylle calls in his company, com- 
prising Rekleshede, Idyllnes, Surfet, Gredynes, Spouse-breche 
(Adultery), and Fornycacion. But Mynde is insulted by their 
appearance in the "gyse of France," and demands that they be 
sent out. 

The attendants all leave, and the three friends proceed to lay 
plans for the future. Mynde is to continue imposing on people, 
Understondyng will indict citizens falsely, and Wylle's ambitions 
extend only as far as the stews. He mentions a certain Janet, 
whom he desires, but cannot enjoy because her husband is always 
in the way. But Understondyng tells him how they can easily 
get rid of the husband, and here one gets a curious bit of insight 
into the legal methods of the time. They are on the point of 
going out when Wysdom appears and rebukes them sternly for 
their sins. Mynde begins to relent, but Understondyng is de- 
fiant, and Wylle is not yet prepared to resign his pleasant vices. 
He reminds his friends that they are still but young. " We may 
a-mende wen we be sage," he adds comfortably. But before 
they can escape from Wysdom, the Soul " apperythe in the most 
horrybull wyse, fowlere than a fende," and six devils come run- 
ning out from under her robe. The three culprits are overcome 
with fear at the sight, and hastily confess their sins, while the 
Soul cries aloud to God for mercy. Wysdom tells them that, 
to obtain forgiveness, they must become filled with sorrow and 
contrition, and they go out singing dolefully. 

Wysdom now edifies the audience with a long speech, enumer- 
ating the nine points most pleasing to God. At the conclusion 



154 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

of his harangue the reformed sinners, who in the meantime 
have been assuming their former robes, return in symbolical 
procession. The Soul is the central figure. She is preceded by 
the Fyve Wyttes, and is accompanied by Mynde on one side, 
and Understondyng on the other, while Wylle brings up the 
rear. Wysdom receives them lovingly, and assures the Soul 
that since her conversion she is dearer to him than ever before. 
The repentant sinners all emphasize the sincerity of their con- 
version, and the Soul ends the play with a last appeal to the 
audience to " eschew vycys, ande so to ende with perfeccion." 

The nature of each character is sufficiently evident, and no 
explanation is needed except that, in the play, Wysdom is 
regarded as the personification of the attribute rather than 
as the individual Christ. It must also be borne in mind that, 
while Anima, or the Soul, is the real object of strife, her down- 
fall and subsequent regeneration are accomplished through 
the triple medium of Mynde, Wylle, and Understondyng, lit- 
erally and awkwardly designated throughout the play as three 
attributes of the soul, instead of being given some allegorical 
relationship. 

The interpretation runs thus : The soul instinctively worships 
and loves true wisdom, of which Christ is the exemplar. But 
the Devil is ever on the watch to draw the soul away from wis- 
dom and into his own power. This he accomplishes by inventing 
worldly temptations which appeal to the mind, the will, and the 
understanding. Through indulgence in these sins the soul is 
debased, since the soul cannot be dissociated from these other 
human attributes. But the mind, having once loved the good, 
becomes uneasy at the consciousness of present degradation, and 
upon direct contact with the wisdom of Christ is convicted of 
sin. This is accompanied by horror at the debasement of the 
soul, which, in the light of wisdom, now becomes apparent. 
Deep contrition follows, the will is subdued and brought into 



THE FLA Y OF WYT AND SCIENCE 1 5 5 

accordance with the will of God, the lapses from sin are par- 
doned, and the soul is reinstated in a condition of purity. 

In discussing the Interlude of the Fozir Elevients I men- 
tioned the "Wit" plays, which, while not to be classed tech- 
nically with the Four Elements, were written with the same 
purpose, that is, to popularize learning, or science.^ These 
plays, three in number, belong to the present class. 

The Play of Wyt and Science^ though coinciding with the 
Four Elements in purpose, falls at the opposite extreme when 
regarded from the point of view of literary merit. The latter 
play is one of the most prosaic and didactic (in the worst sense 
of the word) of the Moralities ; the former is not only among 
the finest of the Moralities, but is one of the most perfect 
allegories in existence. 

The play is incomplete at the beginning, though it is evident 
that not very much is missing. As the existing portion begins, 
Reason is offering "a glas of Reason" to someone, either to 
Wyt himself, or to Instruccion, the attendant of Wyt. As we 
are informed later in the play, Wyt has been suing for the hand 
of Science, the daughter of Reason, and in this mutilated scene 
at the beginning he has either approached Reason himself with 
his request, or has sent his friend Instruccion to ask for him. 
The latter is probably the case, since, at the end of his speech, 
while Reason is presenting the glass, he bids farewell to Instruc- 
cion, and no one else is mentioned. The purpose and use of 
the glass Reason explains : 

Namely when ye 
Cum neere my dowghter, Science, then see 
That all thynges be cleane and trycke abowte ye, 
Least of sum sloogyshnes she myght dowte ye, 
Thys glas of Reason shall showe ye all. 

1 " Science," in all these plays, has the broad meaning of learning, or 
knowledge. 

2 Manly, Vol. I. The Morality was written by John Redford, about 1545. 



156 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Reason, left alone, soliloquizes on the proposed match between' 
his daughter and Wyt. Some people, he says, may marvel that 
he bestows his daughter thus basely, but he is of opinion that, 
when two young people are so well fitted for each other, and so 
much disposed toward mutual love, they ought to be joined in 
marriage. If Wyt be in want Science will have enough for them 
both ; and, for his part. Reason has no desire to bestow his 
daughter from worldly considerations, since love and harmony 
are of greater importance. ^ He reflects that Wyt will need some 
cheering and refreshing influence, and determines to hire Honest 
Recreacion, a good woman who dwells hard by, to wait upon him. 
"If Wyt were halfe deade," he muses, with a forecast of what 
afterwards happens, "she cowld revyve hym." With this gener- 
ous thought in mind he hurries out to seek Honest Recreacion ; 
and then Confydence goes by with a picture of his master Wyt, 
which he is taking to present to Science. 

Wyt now appears with his two attendants. Study and Dyly- 
gence, and asks their advice as to which road he shall travel. 
Dylygence, who is of an impetuous turn of mind, urges him at 
once to take the most travelled road, but the cautious Study 
wishes to wait and get the advice of Instruccion. In a few 
moments Instruccion joins them and rebukes Wyt for running 
aimlessly about without applying to him for guidance. The road 
that Dylygence has pointed out, he argues, would be a very 
dangerous one for Wyt to attempt without having some further 
token of Science's favor, and especially without the sword called 
Comfort, which Science will soon bestow upon him if he will 
contain himself in patience for a while longer. Without this 
weapon he will certainly be attacked by the giant Tedyousnes, 

1 The speech here referred to is typical of the play, and indicates the 
superiority of Wyt and Science to most of the other Moralities. Usually a 
situation like that above would be made the occasion for much literal and 
didactic speech on the benefits of science to men. Here the language is 
consistently allegorical. 



THE PLAY OF WYT AND SCIENCE 157 

who lives on this road. But Wyt is impatient to be off, and 
Dylygence assures him of his fidehty in case of an attack. Study 
is by no means so eager for the journey. His head is beginning 
to ache, and he would gladly turn back ; but Wyt and Dylygence 
compel him to accompany them, and the three start off, leaving 
Instruccion to mourn his master's foolhardiness. 

In the next scene the giant Tedyousnes comes out in a tower- 
ing rage. He has heard that Wyt is on his way to the lady 
Science, and he vows to "bete hym to dust" before he can 
reach his lady-love. Then Wyt comes along, accompanied by 
Dylygence, who is still urging his master to the fray, and by 
Study, whose head is now in a very bad condition. The giant 
rushes out, attacks them savagely, and strikes Wyt dead, while 
the two attendants run for their lives. Tedyousnes bestows 
" another kuffe " upon the prostrate Wyt to make sure of him, 
and then retires in triumph. 

Honest Recreacion now comes to the rescue with her attend- 
ants. Comfort, Quycknes, and Strength. They kneel about the 
lifeless body and chant a song of comfort and hope which gradu- 
ally brings Wyt back to life. At the last verse they raise him 
to his feet, fully restored. 

Reason comes in at this juncture and tells Wyt that he has 
sent the life-giving company to him. But now that their work 
is done he exhorts Wyt to dismiss them and go forward on his 
journey. But Wyt has been through some trying experiences of 
late, and he does not feel like losing his pleasant company so 
soon. " I shall to your daughter all at leyser," he assures Reason 
evasively. Comfort, Quycknes, and Strength retire, but Wyt 
insists on retaining Honest Recreacion, and with a reproachful 
" Well, Wyt, I went (i.e., thought) ye had bene no such man as 
now I see," Reason bids him farewell. 

W}^ now proves an arrant traitor to his absent mistress, and 
makes violent love to Honest Recreacion, laying some emphasis 



158 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

on his desire for a kiss. His companion shows surprise that he 

should forget Lady Science thus easily, but he reassures her 

with the easy gallantry of a lover speaking to a new mistress 

about an old one : cu n t 4. n * *u i 
Shall I tell you trothe ? 

I never lovde her. 

To win Honest Recreacion, however, he must prove himself in 
certain ways. First, she challenges him to a dance ; and Wyt, 
in order to respond to the challenge, finds that he must remove 
the " cumbryng garment " which Science has given him. Then 
the minstrels play, the dance begins, and, unnoticed, Idellnes 
comes softly in and sits down. 

Finally Wyt grows weary with the exertion of dancing and 
lies down, settling his head comfortably in the lap of Idellnes. 
Honest Recreacion becomes indignant. She recognizes Idell- 
nes as a harlot, and loses no time in telling her so. Idellnes, 
on her part, is at no loss for a retort ; and W}^, taking a judicial 
view of the situation, remarks, " While I take my ese, youre 
toonges now frame." A distinctly feminine quarrel ensues, and 
is followed by a debate on the respective merits of the two 
suitors for Wyt's favor. In the end Wyt goes to sleep, and 
then Honest Recreacion departs of her own accord, " syns Wyt 
lyethe as wone that neyther heerth nor seeth." Then Idellnes 
puts her mark on the sleeper, and whistles for Ingnorance. 

The thick-skulled Ingnorance comes shambling on in response 
to the whistle, and Idellnes sets to work, with infinite pains, to 
teach him the almost impossible task of spelling his own name.^ 
When this is finally accomplished Idellnes performs the almost 
equally difficult feat of making her pupil realize that he has 
learned his lesson ; then, as a reward, she gives him Wyt's 
coat, puts his coat on Wyt in exchange, and the pair, teacher 

1 Ingnorance should be contrasted with the Ignorance who figures in The 
Longer TA021 Livest. The latter is a very wise person, though he makes fools 
of others ; the former is the most extreme type of fool. 



THE PLAY OF WYT AND SCIENCE 159 

and pupil, retire in high glee, — Ingnorance because he has 
earned a new coat, and Idellnes because she has "conjured" 
her victim " from Wyt into a starke foole." 

While Wyt is slumbering quietly in a corner, Confydence 
comes in seeking him. But he fails to notice the prostrate 
figure, and goes out mourning the loss of his master. Then 
Woorshyppe, Favour, Riches, and Fame come in singing ; and 
when Science presently appears, with her mother Experyence, 
they offer their services to her, saying that they have been sent 
by the World. But Science answers mournfully that she has 
small cause to care for the World's favoring now that Wyt has 
deserted her, and the delegates of the World are sent away. 

At this point Wyt awakens, and, seeing his former mistress 
before him, advances to excuse himself for his laxity in wooing. 
But Science, perceiving this strange figure in the motley coat 
of Ingnorance and with face blackened by the marks of Idell- 
nes, repulses him indignantly. Wyt, blissfully unconscious of his 
foolish appearance, and laboring under the delusion that his 
lady is only coy, grows bolder and proffers his customary re- 
quest for a kiss. Then Science, waiving all nicety of expression, 
denounces him roundly as an arrant fool, and finally goes out, 
with her mother, in a state of dignified annoyance. 

Wyt at first leaps about in a towering rage at this ungentle 
treatment, and fumbles for his sword, which is gone. Then he 
remembers the mirror which Reason gave him, and produces it 
in order to satisfy himself that Science and Experyence were 
slandering his personal appearance. At the first glance he is 
convinced, though not in the way he had expected ; and then 
his rage takes a sudden turn against Idellnes, whom he rightly 
blames for the disfigurement. Now Shame enters, with a whip, 
accompanied by Reason, and administers a sound thrashing to 
the unhappy Wyt, who kneels and beseeches Reason to pardon 
him. Reason orders Shame to stay his hand, and cheers the 



i6o THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

penitent Wyt by a promise to admit him again as a suitor for 
the hand of Science. Then he calls in Study, Dylygence, and 
Instruccion, and orders them to return to the service of Wyt. 
The restored attendants retire with their master in order to put 
new apparel on him, and Reason soliloquizes on the probability 
of Wyt's proving worthy of his daughter's hand. 

Wyt soon reappears, new-clothed, and carrying the " sword 
of comfort," a gift from Science. Fortified now by the presence 
of Study and Dylygence, and guided by the sage counsels of 
Instruccion, he goes forward to a fresh combat with the giant 
Tedyousnes. The giant comes out, as before, but soon falls 
before the vigorous attacks of Wyt and his followers. Then 
Confydence comes running in to announce to the victor that 
Science has been watching the conflict from a mountain, and 
is coming to reward him. This announcement is followed by 
the entrance of Science with her parents, Reason and Expery- 
ence. A duet ensues between " Wyt and his Cumpanye " and 
" Science and hir Cumpanye." Speeches are made all round, 
and the union of Science and Wyt is sanctioned by Reason 
and Experyence. 

Wyt here occupies the place usually held by the representa- 
tive of mankind. In fact, in the broadest sense he may be said 
to represent mankind, since he is the personification of the 
human mind or intelligence. It will be at once obvious to a 
student of the Moralities that the substitution of one of the 
attributes of Man in the place of Man himself greatly increases 
the opportunities for consistent allegorical action. In the pres- 
ent play there is not a scene, with the exception of Ingnorance's 
lesson in spelling, ^ that is not a distinct and significant step in 
the progress of the allegory. 

1 Courthope, II, 339, referring to this mere episode, says of the play that 
" its leading feature is a conversation in rustic dialogue between Idleness 
and Ignorance." 



THE PLAY OF WYT AND SCIENCE i6l 

It is apparent, also, that the personified abstractions here are 
not of the same general character as those we are accustomed 
to in the Moralities with a human hero. There we have, as a 
rule, representations of virtues or vices which, when practised 
by men, are said to be qualities of the mind or heart. There 
are four such qualities personified in the list here, Confydence 
and Dylygence on the side of Virtue, Ignorance and Idellnes 
on the side of Vice. But the other active figures here. Honest 
Recreation, Study, and Instruccion on the side of goodness, 
and Tediousnes on the side of evil, represent conditions or 
influences affecting the mind of man, but not qualities of the 
mind. Science represents knowledge or learning, the fitting 
object of the mind's desire. Reason, the father of Science, is 
of course the reasoning faculty of man, which originates science. 
Experyence does not figure in the play except as the mother of 
Science. Shame is merely an agent of retribution. The other 
characters, Comforte, Quycknes, and Strength in one group, 
and Fame, Ryches, Favour, and Woorshyppe in the other, 
are introduced only once in short allegorical scenes which are 
explained by the mere account of them in the outline of the 
play given above. 

The allegory may be reduced to the following bald statement : 
The human mind desires learning, but learning is not to be 
acquired except by diligence and study properly guided, or 
instructed. The dictates of reason impel the mind in this 
direction ; but reason also suggests that the mind cannot be 
held to a continuous career of study, but must occasionally 
have recourse to innocent recreations which will brace and 
strengthen it for the sterner work of the search for knowledge. 
The mind, by a diligent application to study, is at first too 
eager to grasp knowledge, and, lacking proper guidance and 
confidence, is soon completely discouraged by the tediousness 
of work. The reasonable course at this juncture is to turn for 



i62 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

the moment to the bracing influence of honest amusements, 
such as music ; but the mind, having become excessively 
wearied by study, now goes to the opposite extreme, and from 
an indulgence in innocent pastimes relapses into complete idle- 
ness, which soon results in ignorance. This ignorance at first 
induces a feeling of contentment and complacence ; but the 
mind, by the light of reason, soon comes to realize its debased 
condition, and is plunged in shame. The feeling of intense 
shame acts as a wholesome corrective ; and the mind, submit- 
ting humbly to the dictates of reason, becomes again devoted 
to study. Confidence returns, and the mind, steadied now by 
proper methods of instruction, is no longer hindered by the 
tediousness of work. Under these new cotiditions, in fact, 
tediousness soon disappears, and the mind is at last ennobled 
by the acquisition of knowledge. 

The even tenor of the " Wit " plays must be broken for a 
moment now by the intrusion of a Morality with an entirely 
different set of ideals, — Wealth and Health} The object of 
the " Wit " plays is to urge men to make the most of their 
minds and of their opportunities for advancement in learning. 
Wealth and Health has a distinctly patriotic tone, and its 
object is to induce men — and especially Englishmen — to pre- 
serve wealth, health, and liberty within their borders. Though 
it is constructed primarily for the guidance of men in general, 
it has in another aspect a political and controversial leaning 
which allies it at some points with Group IV. 

The play opens with the entry of Wealth and Health, who 
come on the stage singing, and then fall into a debate on their 
comparative merits. Wealth at first takes a high hand, refusing 
to admit that anyone else can compare with him in the estima- 
tion of men ; but Health, speaking modestly, makes out so good 

^ In ^Lost'' Tudor Plays, edited by John S. Farmer. The play was entered 
in the Stationers' Register, 1557. 



WEALTH AND HEALTH 163 

a case for himself that Wealth is finally brought to admit that 
he was mistaken in his estimate of Health, and begs the latter 's 
pardon. This is readily accorded, and the two agree for the 
future to remain in each other's company. Then Liberty enters, 
also in a tuneful frame of mind, which is soon altered to dejec- 
tion when he sees that Wealth and Health keep together but 
fail to make up to him. Plucking up his spirits, however, he 
advances and opens an argument with the two friends to prove 
that he is better than either of them, and that neither of them 
could get along without him. Wealth and Health are not pre- 
pared to adopt this point of view at once, but gradually all three 
come to realize that their interests are common, after which 
discovery they promise to stick together for the future. 

This amicable resolve is no sooner taken than 111 Will 
approaches and introduces himself to the trio as their very 
humble servant Will. The three friends are inclined to be a 
bit suspicious of their suddenly conferred mastership ; but the 
pretended Will glibly talks them round, and persuades Liberty 
that he is related to him. 

Will and Liberty is of ancestry old : 
Without Liberty, Will dare not be bold : 
And where Will lacketh, Liberty is full cold : 
Therefore, Will and Liberty must needs be of kin. 

The three companions, completely deceived, agree to take him 
into their common service, and then withdraw, for no reason 
except the dramatic one of allowing 111 Will to explain his 
innate wickedness to the audience. 

When 111 Will has finished this account of his personality, 
he is joined by his friend Shrewd Wit, who recounts, in the 
usual fashion of the Vice, his recent exploit of stealing a 
purse. Their confidences are interrupted by the rude entry of 
Hance, otherwise called War, a drunken Fleming, who is first 
tuneful, then garrulous, in broken English. At the mention of 



l64 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

the name Wealth he asserts that Wealth is in Flanders and that 
he himself brought him there ; to which 111 Will assents with a 
curse, agreeing by implication that wealth did come by war in 
Flanders. Then the merry Hance staggers out, the two villains 
lay a hurried plan for deceiving Wealth, Health, and Liberty, 
and drop suddenly to their knees and pretend to pray when they 
see their trio of masters coming in. Their piety is warmly com- 
mended, and Shrewd Wit, modestly giving his name simply as 
Wit, is employed as a servant along with his friend. Then the 
two servants retire, singing in the fullness of their hearts. 

The three friends are now joined by Remedy, whom they 
greet with great respect, judging by his appearance that he is 
one having authority. Remedy returns their greetings in kindly 
fashion, and tells them : 

To maintain you is all my desire and faculty : 

Yet hard it is to do, the people be so variable : 

And many be so wilful they will not be reformable . . . 

My authority is given to me, most special, 

To maintain you three in this realm to be. 

After they have come to a full understanding with each 
other. Remedy sends the trio out with a final warning against 
" ill and shrewd company." Then, while he lingers to impress 
his views on the audience, the two Vices return and stumble 
across him. He recognizes them and curses them heartily as 
111 Will and Shrewd Wit, while they, for their defence, retort 
that he is a liar, and order him to call them by their proper 
names, Will and Wit. Remedy, however, not easily to be 
hoodwinked, declines to call them by any names of their own 
invention. He warns them that they will soon come to pmish- 
ment for their crimes, and leaves them. 

To combat this new enemy the Vices decide to tell lies 
about him to their masters, and thus to ruin his character with 
them. The aforesaid masters conveniently appearing when this 



WEALTH AND HEALTH 165 

plan is completed, the Vices proceed to carry out their program, 
then threaten to leave if they are not well used ; whereat the 
three guileless employers entreat them earnestly to remain. 
The sensitive retainers give in graciously, and the whole com- 
pany, employers and employed, retire in amicable discussion. 

Remedy comes back and explains to the audience that his 
office is "to amend all faults." He has come to see how 
Wealth, Health, and Liberty are prospering. While he is talk- 
ing, the bibulous Hance again puts in an unwelcome appear- 
ance, and is sternly rebuked by Remedy, not for being drunk, 
but for being a Fleming. 

Fie on thee, flattering knave ! fie on all you aliants, I say ! 

Ye can, with craft and subtle figure, Englishmen's wealth away. 

When the much-berated Hance is properly disposed of, 
Remedy is joined by Health, who comes in sadly, with a 
kerchief around his head, and wailing that he is " infect, both 
body and soul." His friends Wealth and Liberty are in even 
worse case, as he tells Remedy. 

As for Wealth, he is fallen in decay and necessity 
By waste and war, through 111 Will and Shrewd Wit ; 
And Liberty is kept in durance and captivity. 

Remedy promises to help them, but is forced to admit that he 
cannot do much till he catches 111 Will and Shrewd Wit. 
They stand aside and wait, and presently the two Vices come 
in boldly, seeing no one around. Remedy leaps out upon them, 
and 111 Will attempts to disguise his identity by talking a kind 
of Spanish ; but the inexorable Remedy binds them and hands 
them over to Health to be taken away to prison. 

We are to imagine that, after the capture and imprisonment 
of the two Vices, Remedy at once proceeded to relieve the dis- 
tresses of his three guileless wards, who, in the final scene, come 
in together and ask pardon very contritely of their benefactor. 



1 66 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Remedy graciously comforts them, warns them against a repe- 
tition of their fall from grace, and ends the play with a prayer 
for Queen Elizabeth and the country. 

It may look at first like a plain case of hair-splitting to 
separate this Morality from such a play as The Three Laws} 
where the three abstractions, Law of Christ, Law of Moses, 
and Law of Nature are striven against and for a time over- 
thrown by a set of Vices. But technically there is a distinct 
difference. In the latter play the " three laws " are consciously 
pitted against the Vices. They are never deceived in the char- 
acter of the Vices, who make no attempt to enter their serv- 
ice, but accomplish their temporary downfall by corrupting 
men. In the present play Wealth, Health, and Liberty occupy 
the place usually taken by the human hero, as Wit does in 
the " Wit " plays. They are for a time deceived by the Vices, 
admit them to their service, are debased in consequence, 
and are finally restored by turning to Remedy, the Virtue 
of the play. 

There is one noticeable point of difference from the other 
plays of this special group. In this play there is no depiction 
of the Life in Sin. In the Morality of Wisdom, Who is Christ, 
Mind, Will, and Understanding are corrupted and for a time 
live in sin, just as the human hero does. The same is true of 
Wit in the " Wit " plays. But in the present play the abstract 
personifications over whom the war is waged cannot be shown 
as living in sin, since they are essentially good. They are 
weakened, however, in consequence of the machinations of the 
Vices, in whom they place an abused confidence, and in much 
the same manner in which the " three laws " are weakened. 
Health is " infect, both body and soul," Wealth lapses into 
"' decay and necessity " through the contrivances of 111 Will and 
Shrewd Wit, and Liberty is imprisoned. In The Three Laws 
1 See pp. 43 ff., above. 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND SCIENCE 167 

the Law of Nature becomes leprous, the Law of Moses becomes 
"stark bhnd," and the Law of Christ is bound and sentenced 
to be burned. 

All the chief characters in the present play represent forces 
at work in the land at large. Wealth, Health, and Liberty are 
national blessings which should be maintained. Ill Will and 
Shrewd Wit are the forces which make for disturbance and war, 
and Remedy is the salutary power of good law, the chief func- 
tion of which is to keep down disturbing forces and to maintain 
wealth, health, and liberty. Hance is a type figure, introduced 
for a bit of patriotic by-play. 

The interpretation is brief and simple : Wealth, health, and 
liberty are all necessary to the welfare of a country. They are 
of equal importance, and are always found together. When 
desires for sharp practice and lust for war arise in a country, 
these national blessings are quickly reduced, and would in time 
disappear entirely but for the intervention of sound and patriotic 
laws. The enforcing of these laws curbs war and dishonesty, and 
restores wealth, health, and liberty in the land. 

The popularity of The Play of Wyt and Science is attested 
by the fact that it was reproduced a few years later, in slightly 
altered form, with the title The Marriage of Wit and Science} 
In allegorical structure the two plays are almost identical, but 
with one very important difference : Wit, in the second play, is 
accompanied throughout by Will, a new figure, who represents 
inclination. The second author, also, had it in mind that the 
element of age must be regarded when one speaks of the ac- 
quisition of knowledge by the intellect, and he brings Wit on 
the stage as a boy seven years old,^ — though, to be sure, we 
hear nothing more of the age of Wit (except that in the second 

1 Dodsley, Vol. III. 

2 Of course the same specification of age may have been given in the 
beginning of the other play, which, as it stands, is incomplete at that end. 



1 68 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

act, Will thinks he is " seventeen or thereabout "), but must 
imagine that he grows steadily older, if not steadily wiser, as 
the play goes on. 

This failure of the hero to wax steadily in wisdom as in 
stature brings up a point which, though obvious enough, de- 
serves a remark in passing. The Morality playwright did not 
advocate the doctrine that a human being can grow, uninter- 
ruptedly, better or wiser with the advancing years. Whether the 
hero be good or evil in the beginning, he has his strongly con- 
trasted periods of progress and of retrogression before the ideal 
ending in peace ; ^ and his final conversion, in nearly every case, 
is accomplished through a powerful spiritual upheaval. 

The play is not introduced by a Prologue. Nature comes on 
leading her son Wit, a boy seven years old. The precocious Wit 
announces to his mother that he is deeply in love ; 

And thougli I wed not yet, yet am I old enou' 

To serve my lady to my power, and to begin to woo. 

Nature enquires the name of the lady who has enfiamed her 
son's youthful heart, and Wit confesses that it is Science, the 
daughter of Reason and Experience. He implores his mother 
to aid him in his suit, but she tells him gravely that it is not 
within her power to unite him with such a famous lady as 
Science. There are but few that could prove themselves worthy 
of so high an honor, and Wit must win his lady by patient 
zeal through time and travail. To aid him in his toil she gives 
him a boy to wait upon him, "A bird of mine, some kin to 
thee ; his name is Will." The new servant, when interrogated 
by Wit as to his powers of service, proves evasive. He admits 

1 I have already called attention to two exceptions which will test this rule. 
In The Trial of Treastire Just is good at the beginning and remains, without a 
lapse, good to the end. In The Longer Thou Livest the More Fool Thou Art 
Moros, foolish and vicious at the start, becomes steadily more foolish and 
more vicious as the play proceeds. 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND SCIENCE 169 

that he can do all things when it pleases him, but refuses to 
say anything more definite than, "If ye bid me run, perhaps 
I will go." 1 Wit is inclined to grow impatient at this show 
of independence, but Nature desires them to be agreeable to 
each other. Then, with a final request to Will for obedience 
to his master, she leaves the two boys to their fate. 

The beginning of the second act shows Wit already puzzled 
and annoyed by the independence and flightiness of his servant. 
He is urging Will to repair at once to Science with an offer of 
his master's hand, and Will, after teasing him for a while with 
incoherent replies, finally admits that he himself is not anxious 
to bring about the marriage. While Wit remains a bachelor (he 
has evidently grown beyond his seven years now) he may go 
about and enjoy life freely ; but if he is " tied by the toe " in 
marriage he will speedily become " solemn and sour, and angry 
as a wasp," and all his care will be to hamper his poor servant 
Will. Wit hastens to assure his disconsolate follower that a 
marriage shall make no difference in their pleasant relations, 
and finally he persuades Will to act as messenger. 

We are next introduced to the lady Science, who is in a state 
of profound dejection. Many suitors have presented themselves, 
and have spent their youth and wealth in the desire to obtain 
her hand ; but none has succeeded, and she feels that, for the 
present at least, she ought not to encourage any more advances. 
But Reason, her father, wisely urges her to retain hope. Among 
the many thousands who are striving for her favor there must 
be a chosen one who will prove worthy, and when this one 
comes she must yield herself freely and willingly to him. Ex- 
perience, the mother, seconds Reason's counsel, and Science, 
though unconvinced, gives in wearily : 

Fall out as it will : there is no help, I see. 
Some one or other in time must marry me. 

1 Go has here the usual Middle English sense of " walk." 



I/O THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

While this conversation has been going on, Will has been in 
the background listening, and now he comes forth buoyantly 
with a matrimonial offer from his master, who will not stick, he 
says, to marry Science within the hour if she will but give the 
word. He proceeds to describe his master as a well-favored 
youth of " seventeen or thereabout," and, to back up his state- 
ments, produces a picture which Wit has sent so that Science 
may know the appearance of the man who is suing for her hand. 
After scanning the picture, Science admits that " nature in him 
hath done her part," and despatches Will back to his master with 
an invitation to come and talk matters over. 

In the third act Will delivers his message to Wit, who is 
transported with delight, and presses on at once to the house of 
Science, taking Will along with him. Here an interview takes 
place between the lovers, in company with Reason and Experi- 
ence, and with Will, who begins to take a very gloomy view of 
the projected union. The solemn faces of Science and her 
parents — especially the mother — are not to his taste, and he 
tells his master so in very vigorous asides. Wit is informed by 
his mistress that there is a formidable enemy whom he must 
vanquish before he can win her hand, and that this enemy is so 
powerful that he will have to overcome him not by force, but by 
sleight. To aid him in the perilous enterprise. Experience goes 
out to procure Instruction, a trusted friend and retainer of the 
family, who, with his two servants. Study and Diligence, will 
accompany Wit and give him the benefit of their counsels ; and 
Reason gives him a " glass of crystal clear," in which to study 
his defects. Presently the three counsellors arrive, and Wit, 
after greeting them cordially, takes them off to his own house, 
along with the disgruntled Will. 

Act IV shows Wit becoming very restive under the counsels 
of Instruction, Study, and Diligence. He is a hot-headed and 
ardent young lover, and they persist in their policy of delay 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND SCIENCE 171 

until he shall become worthy of the hand of Science. Will is now 
in open enmity with the three counsellors, and he urges his mas- 
ter to take the management of affairs into his own hands. In 
the midst of the argument Reason and Experience appear with 
their daughter, and Wit now appeals directly to his mistress, 
urging her to bestow herself upon him and put an end to his 
miserable period of probation. Science answers that her lover 
must undergo a stern trial of strength before he can claim her. 
In a neighboring wood dwells the giant Tediousness, who has 
sworn to slay all claimants for the hand of Science. Already he 
has slain tens of thousands of suitors, and unless Wit can over- 
come this monster and bring his head as a trophy to Science he 
will have to share the common fate. Wit is at once on fire for 
the combat, and Will urges him on. Diligence is willing to ac- 
company them, but Instruction refuses to be a party to such an 
immature and rash adventure, and Study, complaining of an 
aching head, decides to remain behind with Instruction. 

The rest of the play follows substantially the same lines as 
The Play of Wyt and Science. 

This second version of the Wit and Science plot is not, in 
general, so well motivated as the first one. For example, one 
of the most important incidents — the slumbering of Wit in the 
lap of Idleness and his consequent disgrace and punishment — 
is thoroughly motivated in the first play, and is decidedly weak 
in the second. In the former case Wit, after his resuscitation, 
refuses to listen to the advice of Reason ; then he deliberately 
leaves Honest Recreation for Idleness, and when Reason finally 
brings Shame in to chastise him one feels that his punishment 
is richly merited. In the latter case Wit becomes wearied with 
his exertions, decides to rest before resuming his labors, and 
innocently places his head upon the convenient lap of Idleness. 
He has disdained no good counsels, and, upon awakening, he 
is prepared to return at once to his arduous task of winning 



172 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Science ; but after a quiet scene, in which he modestly attempts 
to procure recognition from Reason and Science, Reason calls 
Shame in to administer a whipping to the unoffending Wit. 
These scenes are quite as well motivated as the average Morality 
incidents, but in comparison with the corresponding scenes in 
the first " Wit " play they fall quite fiat. 

The only new characters here — and consequently the only ones 
that now require explanation — are Nature and Will. Nature is 
here pictured as the great guiding force of children, their teacher 
during the early years before they must turn to the education of 
the world. Will, who is brought on the stage as a child coeval 
with Wit, is, I take it, the representative of human inclination 
or impulse, which is not essentially wicked, but which is likely 
to influence the mind in the direction of pleasure rather than of 
study. When Wit is in a state of degradation Reason says 
to him, 

Remember, how Instruction should have been followed still, 
And how thou wouldst be ruled by none but by Will,^ 

which points to this explanation of the character of Will. He is 
the same sort of figure as Frewyl or Imagynacyon in Hycke- 
s corner^ neither essentially good nor essentially bad. How 
important a factor he is in the later version the following 
interpretation will show. 

The human mind early in life ceases to follow merely the 
guidance of nature. The learning of the world begins to appeal 
to it, and soon becomes the chief object of its desire. But the 
natural inclinations, which would help in the quest for learning 
if rightly directed, often influence the mind in the direction of 
ease and pleasure. The mind addresses itself with diligence to 
the work of study, is wisely guided in its labors, and bids fair 
to become successful. The inclinations, however, soon begin to 
pull the other way, and end by imbuing the mind with a strong 

^ Act V, scene 2, p. 385. "^ See note i, p. 50, above. 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND WISDOM 173 

distaste for study. The tediousness of study completes the 
work ; and the mind, turning at first to innocent pleasures, 
soon lapses into idleness and ignorance. But human reason 
will not permit the mind to fall irretrievably into the dull 
unconsciousness of the brute. By a sudden stirring of reason 
the mind realizes its degradation, is struck with intense shame, 
and returns with vigor to the pursuit of learning. The inclina- 
tion joins in this pursuit, study loses all its tediousness, and the 
mind at last becomes enriched by knowledge. 

The third and last of the "Wit" plays is The Marriage of 
Wit and Wisdom} as bad a play as the other two are good. 
The first two are skillful allegories, dignified and pure in tone ; 
the third, though it employs the same motive, is disconnected, 
and is varied with low comedy scenes of a grossness uncommon 
even in a Morality. 

The author here, to be sure, is adapting his work to the de- 
sires of an audience becoming enamored of scenes from actual 
life, and growing impatient of unmixed allegory, however skill- 
ful and consistent. The resulting play is allegorical in its main 
structure, and teaches a lesson for the guidance of life ; but 
even in the allegorical parts — to say nothing of the unmixed 
low comedy scenes — there is an evident desire to raise a laugh 
rather than to induce the reflective and repentant mood. This 
Morality, then, is one of those which come very near the bounds 
of the comedy of actual life, while remaining, by virtue of their 
technical structure, within the limits of the earlier species. 

After a brief outline of the play by the Prologue, Severity 
and his wife Indulgence enter and hold a family conference 
with their easy-going son Wit. The uncompromising Severity 
tells Wit that he has it in mind to procure a wife for him, and 
that if Wit does not behave well in general he will never cost 

^ See Five Anonymous Plays (Early English Dramatic Series), edited by John 
S. Farmer. The play is usually dated about 1579. 



174 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

his father another groat. Indulgence also expresses her desire 
to see their son well married, but uses much milder terms than 
the choleric father. Severity now comes to the point by pro- 
posing Dame Wisdom as a fitting and desirable mate for his 
son, and the proposal pleases Wit, as, indeed, all proposals do, 
whatever their nature or source. Finally, Severity warns his 
son to apply himself diligently to his book and avoid Idleness, 
also to beware of Irksomeness, a monster who has his lair near 
the house of Lady Wisdom. Then the parents retire, and Wit, 
dutifully resolving to follow their precepts, goes out to give a 
practical demonstration of his virtue. 

Idleness, the chief Vice of the play, enters and in the usual 
manner lays his nature bare before the audience. He is deter- 
mined to corrupt Wit, and to prevent the union between him 
and Wisdom ; but, as Wit in his present virtuous condition of 
mind would not be likely to strike up a friendship with a person 
named Idleness, the wily schemer plans to alter his name to 
Honest Recreation, a name which, as he knows, will be attrac- 
tive to Wit. Then Wantonness joins him, and he makes arrange- 
ments to employ her in his attack on the virtue of Wit. 

The innocent subject of these plans now comes upon the 
scene, and extends a warm greeting to Idleness when the latter 
introduces himself under his assumed name. Then Wanton- 
ness is presented as Mistress Modest Mirth, a name which 
endears her at once to the chaste mind of Wit. After some 
friendly conversation they all sit down, and Wit is easily in- 
duced to take a short nap, with his head in the lap of Wanton- 
ness. She then sets a fool's bauble on his head and blackens 
his face, while Idleness steals his purse. The two conspirators 
retire in high good humor with their success, and Good 
Nurture enters, seeking for Wit. In searching about the stage 
he stumbles heavily on the sleeping dupe and wakes him up. 
Then Wit, on having his attention drawn to the obvious defects 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND WISDOM 175 

in his personal appearance, washes his face and removes the 
fool's bauble from his head. Good Nurture calls in the gen- 
uine Honest Recreation, presents him to Wit in the capacity of 
servant, and they all retire. 

Idleness, whose constant function in this play is to amuse 
the audience, whether at his own expense or not, makes his 
second entrance rigged out as a doctor, and carrying the purse 
that he has filched from Wit. He lays down the purse in a 
corner, and presently two rogues named Snatch and Catch 
appear and combine against him. They steal the purse, then 
seize Idleness, tie a sheet over his head, beat him soundly, and 
go out with the purse. But soon Wit comes to the rescue, with 
Honest Recreation at his heels. He frees Idleness from his in- 
convenient headgear, and listens sympathetically and with a char- 
acteristic ignoring of his previous experiences when the latter 
emerges from the sheet and introduces himself as Due Disport. 

On the advice of the so-called Due Disport the confiding 
Wit now dismisses Honest Recreation from his service and 
starts off to enjoy himself with his new friend, rejoicing that 
he has got rid of Honest Recreation, who was becoming tire- 
some. Idleness leads him straight to the lair of Irksomeness, 
then runs away, and Irksomeness leaps out, beats Wit down 
with his club, and leaves him for dead. But Lady Wisdom 
now makes her appearance. She approaches Wit and helps 
him to his feet, and he apparently comes to life at once, as he 
answers her the moment she addresses him. She urges him to 
attack Irksomeness again, and presents him with a sword. 
Fortified with this new weapon he challenges the monster to a 
second trial of strength, and this time the luck is on Wit's side. 
He pursues Irksomeness off the stage, returns with the head 
of his enemy, and rushes off to tell the news to his father. 

The obliging Idleness returns, this time in the character of 
rat-catcher. Search, the constable, follows, seeking for Idleness, 



176 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

whom he wishes to arrest for cozening Wit. He fails to recog- 
nize the offender in his new garb, and offers to pay him if he 
will cry a proclamation offering a reward for the criminal. Idle- 
ness consents and mounts a chair. Then a series of dull witti- 
cisms follows, at the end of which Search runs away without 
paying what he has promised, and Idleness rushes off in pur- 
suit. Dame Fancy now appears, planning to capture Wit for 
a husband ; and Wit, who is always ready to cooperate heartily 
with anyone who wishes to make a fool of him, comes in to 
place himself at the disposal of Fancy. She tells him that she 
is a messenger from Lady Wisdom, and hands him a letter 
which bids him go with the messenger to a place where Wis- 
dom will meet him. Fancy then leads him into her own house, 
and there makes him an offer of herself and her fortune. But 
Wit, for the first time in his career, asserts himself. He pro- 
tests that he is in love with Wisdom ; so Fancy, unable to 
prevail over his stubborn heart, goes out and leaves him in 
durance vile. 

Then Idleness, still in the character of general entertainer, 
comes in, spies an empty house, steals the pottage-pot, and 
leaves. Presently the two servants, Doll and Lob, who have 
been engaged in a questionable amusement in the barn, come 
back and discover the loss of the pot ; and when Mother Bee, 
their mistress, returns, she beats them soundly for their care- 
lessness. Inquisition enters with Idleness, whom he has caught 
with the pot about his neck. The pot is given up, and Inquisi- 
tion leads Idleness away to justice. 

Good Nurture comes in, again looking for Wit, and hears 
the latter bewailing his fate in bitter terms from the prison of 
Fancy. He breaks the prison door, releases Wit, and leads 
him away. Then Idleness makes his last appearance in the 
play. He is attired like a priest, and invites all "who list not 
to work " to follow him. 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND WISDOM 177 

In the final scene the father Severity enters with his 
chastened son Wit, who is now to be united with Wisdom. 
Good Nurture enters with the bride, and the young lovers sing 
by turns to each other, as in the first Wit play. Then the 
company sets forth to the wedding, and the Epilogue ends the 
play by impressing the moral upon the audience. 

The only characters that need concern us seriously are those 
that figure in the allegory. Severity and Indulgence are the 
father and mother of Wit, but why they should be so one is at 
a loss to understand. The author fails to make this relationship 
allegorically reasonable, and we must conclude that this is simply 
one more point of approximation to the drama of actual life ; 
that is, in the mind of the author and in the minds of his 
audience the scenes presenting Severity, Indulgence, and Wit 
are merely the family conferences of a severe father, an indul- 
gent mother, and an easy-going and complaisant son. Any at- 
tempt to go beyond this in the interpretation of the first two 
characters would, I am sure, be only a display of allegoristic 
skill on the part of the interpreter, and would also be a work 
of supererogation, since Severity and Indulgence have no part 
in the play but to exhibit a strong parental anxiety that their 
son may be well married. Inquisition, another character with 
an allegorical name, is likewise of no importance. He is simply 
an officer of the law, who arrests Idleness toward the close of 
the play. Snatch, Catch, and Search are type figures with 
suggestive names. Mother Bee, Doll, and Lob are individuals 
introduced in a short scene of rough humor. 

The characters, then, upon whom the allegory depends are 
Wit, Wisdom, Idleness, Irksomeness, Honest Recreation, Fancy, 
Wantonness, and Good Nurture ; and most of these have been 
discussed before. Wisdom, of course, is the same character as 
Science in the two previous plays, and Irksomeness the same 
as Tediousness. Fancy here sets herself up in opposition to 



178 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Wisdom as the fitting object of Wit's desire, and represents 
empty imaginings as opposed to solid learning. Wantonness, like 
Idleness, represents a quality of the corrupted mind, and Good 
Nurture stands for good bringing-up, or good training, a force 
or condition affecting the mind, but not a quality of the mind. 
The Epilogue skillfully avoids giving us the clew to the 
allegory : 

For though the style be rough, and phrases found unfit, 
Yet may you say, upon the head the very nail is hit ! 

Wherefor, the moral mark ! for Finis let it pass, 
And Wit may well and worthy then use it for a glass. 

Whereby for to essue his foes, that always do await him, 
And never hang upon the hook, wherewith they seek to bait him.^ 

Every reader of The Marriage of Wit and Wisdom will agree 
with the first line of this quotation, but will be inclined to balk 
at the second. Instead of hitting the very nail on the head the 
author has made an awkward attempt to hit several nails on the 
head at once, with the result that not one of them is driven 
home. In fact, one is almost tempted to throw up the whole 
business of arguing for the play as a Morality, and to let the 
interpretation go at something like this : Let Wit — or any 
other gullible young man — beware whom he trusts. But it is 
obvious that the main structure of the play is allegorical, that 
the chief characters are of the kind necessary to an allegory, 
and that, with this machinery, the play teaches one lesson for 
the guidance of life ; so one must make the best of an unfortu- 
nate situation. 

Much of the action, in fact, has been planned without any 
strict sense of allegorical fitness. The author keeps the main 
situations of the other two " Wit " plays, but fails to lead up to 
them in a consistent fashion. For instance, in the other two 
plays Wit is beaten down by Tediousness, but this is because 

1 p. 208. 



THE MARRIAGE OF WIT AND WISDOM 179 

(to introduce literal with allegorical language) he is studying in 
a misguided or spiritless fashion. In the present play, after Wit 
has passed from the company of Honest Recreation to that of 
Idleness, he is tricked by Idleness into visiting the den of Irk- 
someness, where he is beaten into insensibility. That is, the 
mind, while wasting away in idleness, is rendered apathetic by 
the irksomeness of work, a paradoxical condition of things, 
surely. Then, as if this were not enough. Wit is jerked back 
to activity by Wisdom, the signification being that the mind, 
in a condition of ignorance and paralysis, is recalled by wisdom, 
the result of diligent study. 

But, with such glaring inconsistencies in mind, we can pre- 
sent the interpretation in a general sort of way : The mind, 
while desiring the wisdom resulting from study, often igno- 
rantly employs the wrong methods of acquiring this wisdom. 
Realizing that innocent pleasures are lawful, it relapses into 
idleness in the mistaken belief that this is rest and recreation. 
The result is that it grows besotted through wanton desires, 
and is redeemed only by the application to it of wise training, 
which permits for purposes of recreation only those pleasures 
which are really innocent. After a period of virtue the mind 
grows weary of that relaxation which employs only harmless 
amusements, and, influenced by its desires, again has recourse 
to idle delights ; but these, by contrast, make studies seem 
intolerably irksome, and the mind soon falls into a state of 
apathy. From this condition it at length recovers, and, with a 
renewed desire for wisdom, overcomes the tediousness of study. 
There is, however, one more obstacle to be overcome. Empty 
fancies begin to appeal to the mind, and for a time render it 
unfit for serious work. But the influence of good training 
again brings salvation ; and now the mind, after sundry lapses, 
goes on steadily in its search for wisdom, with which it is at 
length rewarded. 



CHAPTER VI 

MORALITIES ILLUSTRATING A SPECIAL TEXT 

The second main division of the Moralities contains three 
plays, each one enforcing and illustrating a particular text 
which is announced in the title, is repeated from time to time 
in the dialogue, and in general is made the watchword of the 
play. In every case it is the text that binds the play together 
and gives it unity. There is no hero upon whose fortunes to 
concentrate our interest from first to last. Each play is a 
bundle of loosely connected scenes, — or of scenes that would 
be loosely connected if it were not for the one central thought 
that each new scene, as it comes, presents in some fresh aspect. 

The first of these plays, then, to give it the full advantage 
of its sonorous title, is Like Will to Like, Quoth the Devil to 
the Colliery The action consists, on the one hand, in the 
mating of several vicious human types by the Vice, Nichol 
Newfangle, in the service of their common master the Devil ; 
and, on the other hand, in the mating of Virtuous Life with 
his allegorical companions. Good Fame and Honour. In the 
end poetical justice is meted out to all the characters. The 
vicious type figures, after being borne in hand by Nichol 
Newfangle, are ruined and then die shameful deaths, and 
Nichol himself is mounted on the Devil's back for " a journey 
into Spain." Virtuous Life, on the contrary, is reassured by 
God's Promise, and joined by Good Fame and Honour .^ 

1 By Ulpian Fulwel. Dodsley, Vol. III. The play was printed in 1568. 

2 It will thus be seen that the play is to be grouped with the Morality The 
Trial of Treasure and the moral tragedy The Nice Wantoyi in probably owing 
something to French influence. For an account of the French plays of this 
type see p. 121, note 2, above. 

1 80 



LIKE WILL TO LIKE l8i 

The Prologue explains to his hearers why '" our Author " 
has made this particular selection of title and subject : 

Sith pithy proverbs in our English tongue doth abound, 
Our author thought good such a one for to choose 
As may show good example, and mirth may eke be found, 
But no lascivious toys he purposeth for to use. 

Then the play begins with a merry address to the audience 
by the Vice, Nichol Newfangle. Although Nichol is the em- 
bodiment of sin in general, he represents in a special way the 
fashionable, or newfangled, vices of the day. In narrating the 
history of his apprenticeship to Lucifer he tells the audience : 

All kinds of sciences he taught unto me : 
That unto the maintenance of pride might best agree. 
I learned to make gowns with long sleeves and wings : 
I learned to make ruffs like calves' chitterlings, 
Caps, hats, coats, with all kinds of apparels, 
And especially breeches as big as good barrels. 
Shoes, boots, buskins, with many pretty toys : 
All kinds of garments for men, women, and boys. 

Nichol Newfangle was and is, and ever shall be : 
And there are but few that are not acquainted with me. 

Lucifer joins his apprentice and greets him with pride and 
affection. Nichol meets these friendly advances at first with a 
good deal of chaffing on the subject of Lucifer's bottle-nose 
and ill-favored visage, but finally he sobers down and consents 
to hear his master's plan for retaining the allegiance of his fol- 
lowers on earth. Then Lucifer grows confidential and informs 
him : 

Thou knowest I am both proud and arrogant, 
And with the proud I will ever be conversant ; 
I cannot abide to see men that are vicious 
Accompany themselves with such as be virtuous. 
Wherefore my mind is, sith thou thy part canst play, 
That thou adjoin like to like alway. 



1 82 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Nichol at first pretends to think that his master is exhorting 
him to live on a diet of leeks and onions, but the patient Devil 
again laboriously explains his real purpose ; and then the 
apprentice bids him have no fear, since he is ready to play his 
part. Tom Collier is now seen approaching, and Lucifer steps 
aside to see how his plan will work. 

Tom comes up and exchanges friendly greetings with Nichol. 
The latter asks for an account of the day's work, and Tom glee- 
fully announces that for every bushel of coal he has sold he has 
delivered but three pecks. Nichol commends him for "as fit a 
companion for the devil as may be," and introduces him to 
Lucifer in pursuance of their motto. Tom accepts the introduc- 
tion, joins in a song and dance with his new friend in token of 
amity, then retires to continue his dishonest trade. Lucifer com- 
mends his adroit apprentice, bestows his blessing upon him, and 
departs, leaving him to carry on the work of joining like to like. 

Nichol is now joined by Tom Tosspot, who comes in angry 
and swearing because he can nowhere find a companion who 
does not exhort him to leave off his pride and blaspheming, 
instead of agreeing with him in friendly fashion. Catching 
sight of Nichol, he greets him as his friend and patron ; and 
Nichol, for his part, promises to find the disgruntled Tom a 
companion " as fit for you as a pudding for a friar's mouth." 
Presently Ralph Roister appears on the scene, and is intro- 
duced to Tom as the promised mate. The new-made friends 
prepare to enlighten each other on the question of personal 
history ; but Nichol, taking sudden offense at them for neglect- 
ing to remove their caps in the presence of their superior, 
pitches in and gives them a sound whipping. The two rogues 
become submissive at once and beg him to desist. This he 
consents to do after he has drubbed them to his heart's content. 
Then he orders Tom and Ralph to continue with their narra- 
tives, promising the farm " called Saint Thomas-a- Waterings 



LIKE WILL TO LIKE 183 

or else Tyburn Hill,"^ "that of Beggar's manor doth hold," to 
the one who proves himself the worse rogue. At the close of the 
hearing Nichol is unable to decide between two such unmixed 
scoundrels, so he judicially divides the prize between them. 

The friends now receive a substantial addition to their com- 
pany in the person of Hance, ironically addressed as "" little 
bellied Hance " by the sportive Nichol, The newcomer is in 
an advanced condition of tipsiness. Attempting to dance, he 
sprawls over the floor instead, and finally decides to take the 
easier way and go to sleep. Then Philip Fleming, drunk and 
portly of waist as Hance himself, comes in looking for his 
drinking companion. He rouses Hance from his pleasant 
dream of being drowned in a barrel of beer, and urges him to 
return to the actual delights of the botjtle. Nichol commends 
his disciples, and allows them all to depart for a drinking-bout, 
while he himself stays to receive two more favorite pupils, 
Cuthbert Cutpurse and Pierce Pickpurse. These rascals are 
highly praised for their success in their chosen trade, and 
Nichol generously informs them that they are to inherit a 
piece of property called "the land of the two-legged mare" 
(i.e., the gallows). The two thieves are delighted, and are plan- 
ning to order a feast in celebration of their good luck when 
Virtuous Life interrupts them with a soliloquy on the advantages 
of a clear conscience. Nichol invites him to join their merry 
company, but Virtuous Life is quite content with the approving 
fellowship of his undisturbed conscience. " My name," he pro- 
claims loftily, 

is Virtuous Life, and in virtue is my delight. 
So Vice and virtue cannot together be united ; 
But the one the other hath always spited. 
For as the water quencheth fire, and the flame doth suppress, 
So virtue hateth vice, and seeketh a redress. 

1 The two places chiefly used for execution, after the discontinuance of 
the Elms in Smithfield. — Hazlitt. 



1 84 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Nichol sees no prospect of a recruit in the person of Virtuous 
Life, so he retires, leading his two followers, and the audience 
is left for a while at the mercy of the incorruptible soliloquizer. 
At length the sermon is cut short by the entrance of Good 
Fame, God's Promise, and Honour, who have come to show 
their appreciation of Virtuous Life by joining themselves to him. 

After the withdrawal of this virtuous troop, Nichol Newf angle 
reappears with a bag, a staff, a bottle, and two halters, with which 
to reward his followers. He is in high good humor over the suc- 
cess of his plans. His pupils have spent all their substance on 
the strength of his promises ; and when Tom Tosspot and Ralph 
Roister come in he presents them with the bag and the bottle 
and tells them to go begging. They lament their simplicity in 
allowing themselves to be duped, and turn the tables on Nichol 
for a moment by throwing him down and beating him heartily ; 
but this does not help their case, and at last they accept the 
inevitable result of their folly and go out to beg for a living. 

Severity, the judge, now appears ; and when Cuthbert Cutpurse 
and Pierce Pickpurse come on the stage seeking a refuge from the 
law, he detains them and sentences them to the gallows. Nichol 
puts the halters about their necks, thus fulfilling his earlier prom- 
ise, and then turns them over to Hankin Hangman, who leads 
them forth to execution. Finally the Devil comes in, and Nichol 
Newfangle is compelled to mount on his back to " make a journey 
into Spain," while Virtuous Life and his companions appear and 
wind up the play by applying the obvious moral to the situation. 

The author here chose to improve the lives of his audience 
by exhibiting vices to shun rather than virtues to emulate. We 
have in the play a whole troop of sinful and amusing persons 
to warn us by their careers that unauthorized gaiety cannot last 
forever, and one rather colorless abstraction to assure us by 
his experience that virtue, besides the oft-promised reward of 
its own radiant self, is enriched by various earthly emoluments 



LIKE WILL TO LIKE 185 

well worth considering. This playwright, like many others, was 
willing to furnish his audience with the incentive for a good 
laugh, while occupied, in the main, with the sterner business of 
improving their lives. 

A general comment may here be made with regard to the 
Morality playwright and his purpose in producing such a type 
of drama. It is too often indicated, in general terms, that the 
Morality was a purely religious production, and that the frown- 
ing author had but one desire in life, to herd his ignorant flock 
of listeners together on the straight and narrow path to Heaven. 
In some cases this judgment would undoubtedly be the correct 
one. The most earnest seeker for frivolous motives could hardly 
credit Bishop Bale with any lighter desire than this. Bishop 
Bale, to give him his full due while we are about it, went farther 
than this : he narrowed the path till it could accommodate none 
who did not start in it from the Protestant fold. But from Bishop 
Bale down to the author of Like Will to Like, QiiotJi the Devil to 
the Collier ranged a line of authors, in most of whom the desire 
to amuse and the desire to edify were mingled in varying propor- 
tions. This is not in the least contradictory to the statement in 
the introductory chapter that a sine qua non of the Morality is its 
avowed purpose of improving life ; but one must insist that the 
author, while accepting this as a technical requirement, followed 
his own natural bent in the direction of fun or of seriousness. 

To return to the play under discussion, the nature of each 
character is easily determined. Virtuous Life, or Virtuous 
Living, personifies the abstraction that his name indicates. 
He might, by an almost imperceptible change of character, 
be the man of virtuous life, and accommodate himself to the 
action as well as he does in his present nature. Very possibly 
the author may have felt that one virtuous type figure would 
not be enough to oppose to the swarm of vicious ones, but was 
unwilling to bore himself or his audience with more than one, 



1 86 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

and consequently personified the godly life itself, which could 
apply to any number of people. God's Promise, Honour, and 
Good Fame personify the rewards which belong to an upright 
life. On the other side are Tom Tosspot, Tom Collier, Hance, 
Cuthbert Cutpurse, Ralph Roister, Philip Fleming, and Pierce 
Pickpurse, who are types of the people who follow vice and 
suffer for it. In some cases the name indicates the particular 
vice to which the character is addicted. When, for instance, 
Ralph Roister introduces himself to Tom Tosspot, the latter 
comments on the significance of their names : 

It should appear by your sayings that we are of one mind, 
For I know that roisters and tosspots come of one kind.^ 

But in such a case as that of Tom Collier, — the type of men 
who are dishonest in business relations, — we must go beyond 
the name to the actions. Nichol Newfangle is the Vice of the 
play, who represents "all sins generally." Evidently his par- 
ticular designation, given instead of a regular Vice name, is to 
harmonize with the general tone of the names ranged on the 
side of evil. Lucifer requires no explanation, and Severity is 
simply the judge who appears at the close of the play to give 
the dupes of Nichol their deserts ; it makes no difference 
whether we regard him as the severe judge or as the severity 
of the law, which punishes the wicked. 

The interpretation is simple and unequivocal : Men who in 
this life practise vices and yield to the temptations of the Devil 
are fit companions only for each other and for the master whom 
they serve. Their pleasures are provided by Satan and his agents, 
and are of brief duration. In the end they pay the penalty by 
sorrow and disgrace, and have as a prospect for eternity the end- 
less pains of hell, provided by the master whom they have fol- 
lowed on earth. The virtuous life, on the other hand, is entirely 

1 p. 320. 



THE TYDE TARYETH NO MAN 187 

removed from these vices and sinful pleasures of the world, and 
is accompanied by the rewards which naturally belong to those 
who practise self-restraint and piety. To those who lead this 
life God's promises of prosperity and happiness are fulfilled, 
by substantial tokens of fame and honor in this world and by 
assurance of salvation in the world to come. 

The Tydc Taryeth No Man} by George Wapull, is much 
more serious in tone. There are scarcely any touches of humor 
such as abounded in the last play. Corage, the Vice who em- 
bodies all sins, and his more specialized co-workers, Hurtfull- 
helpe, Paynted-profite, and Fayned-furtheraunce, employ their 
time in urging people to cheat their neighbors, disobey their 
parents, and sacrifice all their scruples of conscience to the 
desire for worldly pleasure and advancement, since " the tyde 
taryeth no man'' But finally FaythfuU-few asserts himself in 
the service of his master Christianitye, and employs the same 
text to persuade people to turn from the error of their ways 
while there is yet time. Thus the text, like that of Like Will 
to Like, is used in the service both of good and of evil, and 
both the plays serve as practical lessons to show that people 
who employ the Devil's sophistry in twisting good advice to 
wicked ends must suffer for it. 

After the Prologue, Corage, the Vice, enters and gives the 
audience an insight into his methods of work. His general 
purpose is to procure souls for hell as he explains. 

I, Corage, do call 
BotVi great and small 
To the Barge of Sinne ; 
Wherein they do wallow 
Tyll hell do them swallow : 
That is all they do win. 

^Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature, edited by J. Payne Collier, 
London, 1864. The play was printed in 1 576, but Collier conjectures that " the 
drama is of considerably older date than the year inserted on the title-page." 



1 88 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The minor Vices, Hurtfull-helpe, Paynted-profite, and Fayned- 
furtheraunce, join their leader, and the four discuss ways and 
means of ruining people/ These plans are for a time inter- 
rupted by the usual question of superiority among the Vices, 
and the question is settled by the superior physical force of 
Corage. Then they curtail their names to Helpe, Profite, and 
Furtheraunce, in order to make a good impression on people, 
and go out to perform their duties. 

Corage, left behind as general manager, is presently joined 
by his friend Greedinesse. The latter is being momentarily 
hampered by a brief onslaught on the part of his conscience. 
A preacher of the gospel has encountered him on the street 
and has reproached him and his kind as evil members of the 
commonwealth. But Corage soon raises his friend's mind be- 
yond the reach of petty embarrassments with a lecture on his 
favorite text, "The tyde taryeth no man," and persuades him 
that he must make money while he can and in any way that he 
can. Greedinesse he addresses by a name which the latter much 
prefers, and under which he commonly works, — Master Welth- 
inesse, — except when he, Corage, forgets himself and lapses 
into the use of the correct name. 

When Greedinesse is sent away, comforted and uplifted in 
spirit, Hurtfull-helpe comes in with No-good-Neighbourhood. 
The owner of this sinister name is eager to procure a tenement 
possessed by Greedinesse. Another man is occupying the tene- 
ment, but No-good-Neighbourhood is consumed with the desire 
to turn him out on the street and take possession himself. 
Corage informs him how this may best be done, and recom- 
mends him to the self-styled Furtheraunce, who comes in at this 

1 Here, as a natural enough result of the absence of a human hero to strive 
for, the Vice-motives are divided. Corage does his wrork, in the main, unself- 
ishly, and for the general furtherance of wickedness. On the other hand, his 
followers, like the Vices in Respublica, declare that they are laboring for their 
own gain. 



THE TYDE TARYETH NO MAN 189 

moment. At the counsel of his advisers No-good-Neighbourhood 
leaves off all but the last element of his name, and under the 
more attractive designation of Neighbourhood goes out, with 
Hurtfull-helpe and Fayned-furtheraunce, to obtain the coveted 
tenement. 

The high seat of Corage is now approached by Willing-to- 
win-worship, a courtier who is in dire need of money. Corage 
impresses his favorite motto upon this new pupil, advising him 
not to be too nice in the selection of his paths toward courtly 
advancement. Hurtfull-helpe and Fayned-furtheraunce reappear. 
They are introduced to Willing-to-win-worship under their as- 
sumed names, and agree to further his ambitions on consideration 
of a fee. 

When the courtly employer and his two servants depart on 
their errand, Corage is again visited by Greedinesse, whom he 
tells that Neighbourhood and the courtier are looking for him 
on matters of business. Greedinesse, scenting profit, hurries out 
to find them. Corage himself departs to look up some of his 
" schollers," and during his absence the tenant who has been 
ejected in favor of No-good-Neighbourhood comes in with bitter 
complaints on the hardness of the times. He wonders where he 
can find Christianitye, and decides to follow up this search as his 
one remaining hope of receiving fair treatment in the world. 

When the unhappy tenant goes out, Corage reappears and 
resumes his seat as judicial adviser for the whole world. He is 
now approached by "the mayd, Willfull Wanton," who yearns 
for a husband, — apparently an unholy desire. Corage urges 
her to disobey her mother, who is virtuously opposed to the 
idea of marriage, and to get a husband at all costs, since " the 
tyde taryeth no man." Willfull Wanton departs, much embold- 
ened by this advice. Then the three subordinates of Corage 
troop in to report progress and to exult over the gains from 
their lucrative traffic. 



I90 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

When the businesslike Corage has sent his helpers back to 
their duties, he is visited by Wastefullnesse, the husband of 
Wantonnesse, the former "' mayd Willfull Wanton," now happy 
in the possession of a husband and a more satisfactory name. 
Corage reminds his caller that " the tyde taryeth no man," and 
advises him to be no niggard with his wealth. Wastefullnesse is 
exhibiting his confidence in the soundness of this advice when 
suddenly his wife, Wantonnesse, rushes in and casts bitter re- 
proaches on him for his neglect of her. Corage, in the office of 
mediator, again applies the ever-ready motto, urging them to 
take their pleasure while they are young enough to enjoy it, and 
the husband and wife go away lovingly together. 

The stage is now cleared for the interposition of a short scene 
which has only the most general connection with the rest of the 
play. The Sergeant is shown leading the Debtor off to jail. He 
shows a readiness to accept a bribe from his prisoner, but the 
Debtor refuses to free himself in this dishonest manner, and is 
hurried away to custody. 

Christianitye now appears, bearing a sword with "Pollicy" 
written on one side and " God's word " on the other, also a 
shield with " Riches " on one side and " Fayth " on the other. 
He laments that through the greediness of people he is forced 
to show his sword and shield with the titles " Pollicy " and 
" Riches." Faythfull-few enters, greets Christianitye lovingly, 
and turns the titles, though Christianitye warns him : " You 
faithful in number are few." The experiment is no sooner 
tried than Greedinesse enters with his master Corage, and 
after a hot argument with Faythfull-few compels Christianitye 
to turn his weapons again. Then the whole company leaves the 
stage, Faythfull-few assuring his friend and master that he will 
strive to right his weapons in the near future, 

Wastefullnesse comes in, poorly clad and bewailing the fact 
that he and his wife are compelled to separate and seek their 



THE TYDE TARYETH NO MAN 19 1 

livings. Dispayre joins him and urges him, in rather impressive 
language, to make an end of his life. 

Thy prodigall sinnes are so manifold 

That God of mercy doth thee utterly denay, 

Therefore, to ende thy life it is best. 

Thy calling for mercy is all but in vayne ; 

By ending thy life thou shalt be at rest ; 

But if longer thou live great shall be thy payne. 

Wastefullnesse accepts the advice, and is on his way out to kill 
himself '" with cord or with knyfe," when Faythfull-few rushes 
up and restrains him. Then the latter kneels down and prays 
with the unfortunate Wastefullnesse, and together they beseech 
God to banish Dispayre, who " fiyeth " as the petition is offered 
up. Faythfull-few instructs Wastefullnesse to " scan " the motto 
"Tyde taryeth no man" "after God's will," and sends him back 
to his wife with fresh strength. 

The decline of the Vices is now indicated by the mournful 
appearance of Corage, who enters weeping for the death of 
Greedinesse. Faythfull-few and Authority follow, looking for 
Corage, who makes violent efforts to escape.' But Correction 
comes in to aid in the arrest, and to him the Vice is handed 
over for punishment. Christianitye now joins his friends ; 
Faythfull-few turns his weapons to show " God's word " and 
"' Fayth " ; and the play ends with prayers on the part of 
Christianitye and Faythfull-few that the weapons may never 
again be reversed. 

Some of the characters here, such as Fayned-furtheraunce 
and No-good-Neighbourhood, stagger under the weight of most 
oppressive names. Though we find in Magnyfycence such char- 
acters as Counterfet Countenaunce and Courtly Abusyon, and 
in the later Morality All for Money such pretentious figures aS, 
Prest-for-Pleasure and Learning-without-Money, the authors of 
English Moralities prefer, in general, simplicity of nomenclature. 



192 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

However, if the author of The Tyde Taryeth No Man was ac- 
quainted — as it seems very probable that he was — with the 
earher French Morahties, he could parallel his figures with 
such involved abstractions as Desperation-de-Pardon, Honte-de- 
dire-ses-pechies, Crainte-de-faire-penitence, and Esperance-de- 
longue-vie,^ and could justly pride himself on his self-restraint. 

But if the author of the present play is to be credited with a 
somewhat doubtful moderation in the length of names, he must 
at least be denounced as utterly reckless in assigning abstract 
names to type figures. Greedinesse, Wantonnesse, Wastefull- 
nesse, and No-good-Neighbourhood, though abstractions in 
name, are in reality types of wrongdoers, each of whom is 
especially addicted to the kind of wrongdoing that his name 
implies : Greedinesse is the man actuated by greed of wealth, 
Wantonnesse is the wanton young woman who lusts for pleas- 
ure, Wastefullnesse is the careless and wasteful young man, and 
No-good-Neighbourhood is the bad neighbor. But since we are 
governed in our classifications by the internal evidence of the 
play, we must note a fragment of contradictory evidence as to the 
nature of the most important of these types, namely, Greedinesse. 

As Corage is sitting in council, Greedinesse, his friend and 
disciple, enters in a rather perturbed state of mind. He has 
been reproached for his lack of good citizenship, and his drowsy 
conscience has almost been stirred by the reproach. 

As I walked along through the streate, 
By such wayes as mine affayres did lie, 
It was my chance with a preacher to meete, 
Whose company to have I did not deny : 
And as we two together did walke, 
Amongest other communication we had, 
The preacher brake out with reprocheable talk, 
Saying that we cittizens were all to bad. 
Some of us, he sayeth, are greedy guttes all, 
And evill members of the common welth.^ 

1 In UHomvie Pechenr (acted 1509). ^ P. 16. 



THE TYDE TARYETH NO MAN 193 

Greedinesse, therefore, in his eagerness for gain, is an " evill 
member of the common welth," or, in the picturesque figurative 
phrase of the preacher, a " greedy gutte," the type of person 
that every well-informed American of to-day will easily recognize. 
Greedinesse again sounds a modern note in the ease with which 
he stills the half-audible murmurings of his conscience under 
the direction of the master Vice, Corage ; and, to complete the 
comparison, Greedinesse assumes the name Welthinesse. 

So far, then, Greedinesse is undeniably a type ; but later in the 
play the author seems to become disturbed at having presented 
a figure with an abstract designation as a consistent type. Corage 
enters weeping for the death of his friend, and thus soliloquizes : 

Why, but is Greedinesse dead in good sadness ? 

{Reasoning with himself \ 
My thinkes these newes are not true which you tell, 
Yes, truly, he dyed in a great madnesse. 
And went with boate straight into Hell. 
Why, foole, Greedines will never dye. 
So long as covetous people do live. 



I am sure he is dead, or one of his likenesse. 

For when he was buryed I stood by. 

And some sayd he dyed of the new sicknesse.^ 

This is a very curious soliloquy, and I am at a loss to explain it. 
It may be that the author took this method to explain what is 
more obvious without such a clumsy explanation, that is, that 
Greedinesse is not what his name suggests, but a type figure. 
He can hardly have intended that his audience should interpret 
this as a real doubt on the part of Corage. The Vices are never 
fooled as to the identity of the characters with whom they come 
in contact. But whatever purpose the above soliloquy may have 
been intended to serve, the conclusion is inevitable, — Greedi- 
nesse is an indefatigable seeker after wealth, who has come to 

a miserable end. 

1 p. 77. 



194 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The real personifications of evil are Corage, Hurtfull-helpe, 
Paynted-profite, and Fayned-furtheraunce. Corage, the leader, 
represents vice in general, while the other three are of an un- 
usual kind, representing evil influences in the world instead of 
human vices. If we remove the qualifying words from each of 
the names — as the owners of the names do for themselves — 
we have left the names of the three influences which these char- 
acters seem to exert in favor of the human beings with whom 
they come in contact. The first represents the help that worldly- 
minded people seek in their efforts for advancement, the hurt- 
fulness of which they do not realize ; the second represents 
worldly profit, the evil of which is painted over, or disguised ; 
and the third stands for earthly advancement, which, though a 
strong influence with people of mercenary minds, is only a snare 
to entrap them to their downfall. Hurtfull-helpe's own explana- 
tion of his tactics is worth quoting, as it indicates the regular 
method employed by Vices here and elsewhere to delude their 
human victims. 

If men in me hurtfullnesse should know, 

There are few or none that with me would deale : 

Therefore this word hurtfulle I never reveale. 

My name I fayne playne Helpe to be, 

Wherefore ech man for helpe doth come unto me.^ 

Christianitye is, of course, the chief representative of virtue, 
and Faythf ull-few, a type figure, stands for the few Christians who 
remain true to their religion. Authority and Correction, who ap- 
pear only to confirm the final overthrow of vice at the close of the 
play, represent the powers of good law and morality. Dispayre is 
the Agent of Retribution who appears frequently in the Moralities 
to punish type figures who have consorted too long with Vices. 

There is no necessity now of going into details to outline the 
interpretation of the allegory step by step. The general meaning 

1 Pp. 8-9. 



ALL FOR MONEY 195 

is that people who make worldly wealth and advancement their 
object in life are following a delusion. They struggle on, think- 
ing it necessary to grasp opportunities as they come, when sud- 
denly they are overtaken by death or give way to despair ; and 
it is fortunate for them if they are brought to their senses in 
time to turn to Christianity. In this mad rush for pleasure and 
advancement Christianity is neglected or, worse still, is employed 
for purposes of policy. But there are always a faithful few who 
follow religion sincerely and with faith ; and these few are able, 
when the law assists them, to overthrow the reign of vice and 
to cause their religion to be embraced. 

In All For Money} the last play of this class, the sole pur- 
pose is to show the power and the evil of money. The text is 
not cited in full, but one does not need to go far to find what 
is implied, — "' The love of money is the root of all evil." The 
play is not so grimly earnest as the last Morality discussed. 
There is a good deal of rough humor in William's perplexity 
over the management of his two wives, in Sinne's teasing of 
Satan, and in the latter's " roaring and crieing " lest Sinne will 
desert him. There is also a pervasive satiric tone which allies 
the play closely with TJie Three Ladies of London, and which 
gives it a sort of relish almost completely lacking in The Tyde 
Taryeth No Man. 

Some of the names here are more involved and more preten- 
tious than the best — or worst — of those in The Tyde Taryeth 
No Man. Prest-for-Pleasure and Swift-to-Sinne are compara- 
tively innocent ; Learning-without-Money and Money-without- 
Learning are conceptions that can be understood without much 
effort; but Neyther-Money-nor- Learning is nothing. That is evi- 
dent. But what particular variety of nothing is he } As a type 
figure he could be understood, but as a personified abstraction 

1 Ed. by Ernst Vogel in the Shakespeare Jahrbuch, XL. The play was 
written by T. Lupton, and was printed 1578. 



196 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

he launches the imagination out into darkest space. And when 
we find a simple individual scarcely worth noticing bowed down 
under the title " William- with-the-two- Wives " we must conclude 
that the author consciously adopted the "P>ench guise " and used 
long names for their own sake.^ 

The Prologue has a long preamble on the evils of money. 
From his point of view there is scarcely a vice or crime on the 
whole list that may not, in some way, be traced to the damning 
influence of pelf. However, he concludes rather obviously, 
money is not necessarily an evil in itself. It is an evil be- 
cause we use it for evil purposes, and it could, conceivably, 
be a source of good, just as 

we may cut our necessaries and meate with our knyfe 
Wherewith many have cut their owne throtes and bereved them of their life. 

After this cheerful simile has cleared away the lingering cob- 
webs of misapprehension, the Prologue winds up his speech by 
remarking that the " pleasant tragedie " that is to follow has 
been constructed because people are so greedy of money. He 
hopes that people may thereby amend their faults, then retires. 
Theologie, Science, and Arte enter in succession, and each 
makes his solemn plaint that he is sought for money instead of 
for his own sake. After their departure Money comes in exult- 
ing that he is worshipped and served by all classes of men, 
from the lord to the apprentice. This potent ruler is joined by 
Adulation, who greets him with esteem and affection, and as- 
sures him that all his labors are for the sake of Money. While 
the two friends are exchanging confidences Money is suddenly 
taken sick. Mischievous Helpe comes in to wait on him, and 
with the aid of this attendant Money succeeds in vomiting up 
a full-grown son. Pleasure. The new-born Pleasure has hardly 
time to give an account of his place in the scheme of things 
when he, in his turn, becomes sick also, and obtains relief only 

1 See p. 192, above. 



ALL FOR MONEY 197 

when, with the assistance of Prest-for-Pleasure, he vomits up a 

lusty offspring, Sinne. The hne is not yet complete. Sinne is 

taken with violent pains, Swift-to-Sinne is hurriedly called in, 

and with his aid Sinne gives birth to Damnation. 

It soon becomes evident that Sinne is the interesting member 

of this fertile family. In other words, he is the chief Vice of 

the play. The others retire and leave him to amuse the audience 

with an account of his influential position in the world of affairs. 

He is finally interrupted by Satan, who comes in shouting with 

joy over the enlargement of his kingdom through the efforts of 

Money and Pleasure. Sinne immediately takes a stand upon his 

dignity. Then, he infers, 

I and my son Damnation be no bodie with you, 
Sinne and Damnation belike bring a man to heaven ! 
Is thy kingdom diminished through us, thinkest thou ? 

Howe can Money and Pleasure bring men into hell 
Without Sinne and Damnation, Sir good face, me tell ? 

Since he is of no service he may as well retire. But here Satan 
sets up a lamentable roaring, and tearfully beseeches Sinne to 
remain with him lest his kingdom decay through his ancient 
enemy Jesus. Sinne has not the slightest intention of deserting 
Satan, but he has obtained a hold over the latter which he does 
not fail to utilize, when the mood seizes him, to the production 
of roars of dismay. The Devil calls in Pride and Gluttonie to 
help him conciliate the offended Sinne, who finally allows him- 
self to be pacified, and consents to remain. 

In the next scene there is a convocation of several not very 
interesting persons, Leaming-with-Money, Learning-without- 
Money, Money-without-Learning,and Neyther-Money-nor-Leam- 
ing. There is a great deal of explanation and discussion, but 
the chief feature of the scene is a debate between Leaming- 
without-Money and Money-without-Learning on their respective 
merits. The former makes use of his particular stock-in-trade 



198 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

to swamp his less intellectual rival with learned arguments, and 
Money-without-Learning is compelled to take refuge in the 
conviction, 

If I should diminishe my money but one grote, 
I should not be quiet these two days, I wote. 

When this argumentative group retires, Money comes in, puffing 
with fatigue. He is so much in demand that he cannot over- 
take all his duties, and finds that he must have a helper. His 
grandson Sinne joins him, and, learning his need, proclaims 
that he has a friend 

who has such a minde and great love to money 
That he will doe anie thing for you by and by. 

Then All-for-Money comes in, " apparelled like a ruler or mag- 
istrate," and receives his instructions. He is to take the place 
of Money, and the latter gives him explicit directions as to the 
persons he shall favor. 

What suters so ever come to crave your ayde, 
If they come from me let them not be delay de. 
Whatever their matter be, have thereto no regarde, 
For if they come from me they will you well rewarde. 

All-for-Money promises to be faithful to his charge, and his 
patron departs, leaving him in the judgment-seat, with Sinne 
in attendance. Then a succession of people troop in and im- 
plore help from the magistrate, and he dispenses his favors 
strictly and consistently on the basis of recommendation from 
Money. Gregorie Graceless is in danger of hanging for his 
thefts, but he carries his token of the friendliness of Money, 
and he is sent away pardoned. William-with-the-two- Wives has 
married one woman for money and another for love, and now 
he wishes to be rid of the first one while retaining her goods. 
William has been recommended by Money, so the magistrate 
arranges to suborn witnesses who will swear falsely and rid the 



ALL FOR MONEY 199 

husband of his undesirable wife. Nichol-never-out-of-the-lawe 
comes in to complain of a poor wretch who has a bit of land 
which adjoins his own estate, and which he himself is anxious 
to have. On presenting his credentials Nichol is assured that 
he shall have the protection of the law in robbing his poor 
neighbor. Sir Lawrence Livingless, an ignorant priest who 
does not know " Greke, Ebrewe, nor Latin," is rewarded with a 
benefice on account of good standing with Money ; and for the 
same reason old Mother Croote gets the promise of a couple 
of witnesses to aid her in compelling a young man whom she 
loves to marry her. On the other hand justice is sternly meted 
out to Moneyless-and-Friendless, who has committed only the 
petty offense of taking a few ragged clothes off a hedge. 

When All-for-Money has filled his purse he retires, accom- 
panied by Sinne. Then, as a last reminder of the baleful results 
of the worship of money, Judas and Dives come in bewailing 
the state to which they are reduced by their love of wealth. In 
the midst of their complaints Damnation enters and drives them 
off to hell. Then Godly Admonition, Vertue, Humilitie, and 
Charitie end the play with the regular commendation of virtue. 

The task now remains of sorting out the thirty-two characters, 
ranging from Theologie, Science, and Arte, to Judas, Dives, and 
Mother Croote. Lupton seems to have entered on his work with 
the determination to drag in every type, individual, and abstrac- 
tion that might serve to add an extra fragment of testimony on 
the evils of money. As a consequence the majority of the thirty- 
two appear only once to say their say, and then disappear, while 
most of the action is carried on by about half-a-dozen figures. 

Theologie, Science, and Arte need no explanation. They 
appear only once, make their moan, and retire. Money, Pleas- 
ure, Sinne, Pryde, and Gluttonie are the Vices of the play, 
while Damnation, the offspring of Sinne, is an Agent of 
Retribution. Adulation and Mischievous Helpe are also on 



200 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

the side of evil ; they are not active Vices, but simply attend- 
ants upon Money. Vertue, Humilitie, and Charitie are the Vir- 
tues, and Godly Admonition represents a force on the side of 
goodness ; but these four appear only at the close of the play 
to drive the moral home. There is no contest between Virtues 
and Vices, and no human hero to strive for ; the play is sim- 
ply a presentation of wickedness and its punishment. Conse- 
quently the Virtues and Vices are regarded, not as personal 
qualities, but in the wider sense of influences at work in 
the world. 

Learning-with-Money, Learning-without-Money, Money-with- 
out-Learning, and Neyther-Money-nor-Learning are personified 
abstractions, not very consistently conceived, who are pressed 
into service for the sake of a scene which culminates in a de- 
bate on the comparative merits of money and learning. This 
ends the list of abstractions. 

The last statement might possibly be challenged, since the 
important figure AU-for-Money still remains. There is no help 
to be got from the name itself. In this respect All-for-Money is 
inscrutable. But his actions are, on the whole, those of a type 
figure rather than of a personified abstraction. He sits in the 
judgment-seat, "apparelled like a ruler or magistrate," and de- 
livers his verdicts in favor of those who can pay most for them. 
This method of behavior would not harmonize with any abstrac- 
tion suggested by the name, and we are safe enough in regard- 
ing All-for-Money as the type of corrupt rulers and magistrates. 

Prest-f or- Pleasure, Swift-to-Sinne, Moneyles-and-Friendles, 
and Moneyles are type figures, sufficiently described by their ex- 
haustive titles to go without further comment. Gregorie Grace- 
less, Sir Lawrence Livingless, William-with-the-two- Wives, ^ and 

^ I do not insist that William is to be narrowed down to the type of man 
that marries two wives. He must be given more scope than that; and, in any 
case, his descriptive title universalizes him more or less. 



ALL FOR MONEY 201 

Nichol-never-out-of-the-Lawe are also types, less highly univer- 
salized than the others. Finally, Judas, Dives, and Mother 
Croote range themselves at the foot of the symbolic ladder on 
the plane of individualization. 

The following interpretation must, of course, be merely a 
series of remarks connected only by their bearing on the text, 
and having no real logical sequence or organization : When 
money becomes the great object of life all sorts of evils re- 
sult. Theology, science, and art, which should be studied for 
their own sakes, are converted into means for obtaining wealth, 
and people forget that learning without money is far more de- 
sirable than money without learning. Wealth procures pleas- 
ures which are sinful and which lead to eternal damnation. 
The rulers and magistrates are infected with these mercenary 
desires, and use their power simply as a means for amassing 
wealth, with the result that judgments are given in favor of 
those who can pay most for them, while the poor man is ruth- 
lessly punished for the smallest offenses. People should remem- 
ber the fate of Judas and of Dives, who in this life obtained 
money at the expense of Christian virtue and are now suffer- 
ing in hell for it. To avoid such an end we must listen to 
God's admonition, and practise virtue, humility, and charity in 
our lives. 



CHAPTER VII 

MORALITIES DEALING WITH THE SUMMONS 
OF DEATH 

The Summons of Death is made the motive in only two 
plays, The Pryde of Lyfe and Everyman, though it appears in 
The Castle of Perseverance} that great storehouse of Morality 
motives, and also in the nineteenth play of the Coventry Cycle 
{The Slaughter of the Innocents)? Of course there is no tell- 
ing how many plays of this class may have been written, acted, 
and forgotten ; but judging by the numbers of each class that 
have come down to us, — which should preserve the original 
ratio fairly well, — one naturally asks why a motive which is 
made so tremendously effective in Everyman should have been 
so little in vogue. But our standards of effectiveness do not 
necessarily coincide with those of the playwright and audi- 
ence of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The Morality is 
primarily a bit of practical teaching, designed to warn men, by 
precept and by example, from a life of viciousness, and to lead 
them to a life of sobriety and virtue. Death and the life be- 
yond enter into the discussion comparatively seldom ; the play- 
wright assumes, with some show of reason, that if the present 
life is well conducted the life beyond the grave will look after 
itself. I fancy, too, that the extreme solemnity of death scenes 
did not much appeal to the average spectator, but that he pre- 
ferred to leave the play with a pleasant and renewable determi- 
nation to live in virtue rather than with a sombre realization of 
the imminence of death. 

1 See p. 63, above. ^ See p. 30, above. 
202 



THE PRYDE OF LYFE 203 

The Pryde of Lyfe ^ remains now only as a fragment, but 
fortunately this fragment consists of the first part of the play ; 
and the unusually long and descriptive prologue outlines the 
action from beginning to end. The hero is presented in two 
aspects ; first, allegorically, as a king, accompanied by his queen 
and subjects, who is finally vanquished by a rival king ; second, 
literally, as the typical human being, with typical qualities, who 
at length must succumb to death .^ 

When the Prologue has outlined the play, the Kyng of Lyfe 
enters and exults in his strength and power. He is ruler over 
all lands, and no one dares to oppose him. His two soldiers, 
Streinth and Hele, flatter him and confirm him in this Herod- 
like opinion of himself. But his queen, who is wiser than he, 
begs him to think of mortality : 

thinke, thou haddist beginninge, 
Qwhen thou were i-bore : 
& bot thou mak god endinge 
thi sowle is fforlore. 

This strikes the King as being the merest foolishness. He 
upbraids his queen for her fanciful language, and demands to 
know if she wishes his death so that she may " have a new." 
The Queen, however, holds stoutly to her point. She insists on 
the power of Deth, the great conqueror, and on the perishable- 
ness of things of this world. The King then turns confidently 
to his two soldiers, and asks their opinion of his power to com- 
bat this rival monarch : 

streinth & hele, qwat sey ye, 
my kinde, kornin knightes? 
schal deth be lord ouer me 
& reve me of mightes? 

1 Edited by Alois Brandl in Quellen des weltlichen Dramas in England. 
The date of the play is not known, but it is usually placed about as early as 
the Castle of Perseverance. 

2 Cf. New Custom (p. 46, etc.) for the same sort of treatment. 



204 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

They assure him that Deth shall not harm him while they are 
in his service. Then, for a further bolstering up of his pride, he 
sends for Mirth, his messenger, and lays the case before him. 
Mirth answers with even more assurance than the two soldiers, 
and for this he is warmly commended by the King, who prom- 
ises to advance him and give him " the erldom of kente." 

The Queen then secretly despatches Mirth for the Bishop, 
to save her lord. The Bishop comes at Mirth's bidding and 
preaches a sermon on the vices of the day, ending with a 
special warning to the King ; but the latter rewards his serv- 
ices with railing and scorn, and finally orders him home. The 
Bishop goes with a last warning that Deth will come very soon 
and deal to the King his death-wound. 

The King now determines to settle the question of supremacy 
by an actual encounter with this mighty Deth. He summons 
Mirth and sends him with a challenge 

Of deth & of his maistrye 
Qwher he durst com in sighte, 
Ogeynis me & my meyne 
with fforce & armes to flfighte. 

Mirth starts off confidently, and here the manuscript comes to 
an abrupt end. But the sequel, as indicated by the Prologue, is 
this : Deth comes to the land, slays people right and left, and 
finally encounters the Kyng of Lyfe in "a sterne strife." The 
outcome of the encounter is that Deth drives the King to the 
earth and gives him his mortal wound. Then an intercession 
scene is indicated for the close of the play, where "cure lady 
mylde" prays her " son so mylde " for the soul of the dead King. 
Rex, or the Kyng of Lyfe, is the representative of mankind, 
— the human hero, who always figures where this motive is 
used. Regina cannot be shown to serve any special purpose 
allegorically. When we regard the literal aspect of the play she 
is simply the thoughtful wife of a reckless and boastful king ; 



THE PRYDE OF LYFE 205 

but when we return to the allegory she cannot be regarded as the 
typical wife, nor, on the other hand, does she stand for wisdom 
or prudence. It is, I think, simply a case of an author's having 
two purposes in mind : one to construct an allegory of life and 
death, the other to present an over-confident king, like Herod, 
with his natural companions ; and the latter purpose comes in at 
times and crowds out the former. Regina could easily be taken 
as the type of wise companion or counsellor, though there is 
nothing in the presentation that will warrant attaching more sig- 
nificance to her than I have indicated. Episcopus, or the Bishop, 
is merely a bishop or, if you like, a type of the spiritual adviser. 

Streinth, Hele (Health), and Mirth, the servants of the human 
hero, represent human qualities. They are not on the side either 
of vice or of virtue, and it is not necessary that personifications 
should be on either in this class of plays, where there is no strug- 
gle to win the hero to a life of virtue or of vice. Streinth and 
Hele require no explanation, but Mirth is not quite so obvious 
a character. He stands, apparently, for high spirits, the joy of 
living which accompanies health and strength. Deth completes 
the list of figures in the play. 

The interpretation is necessarily much broken up by the in- 
complete state of the manuscript, but the remaining portion can 
be explained thus : Man, exulting in his health and strength, 
laughs at the idea of death. His high spirits make him feel 
that he could ward off death by his own power. It is in vain 
that he is warned by friends and spiritual advisers that death 
comes to all men sooner or later ; and finally his pride becomes 
so great that he rails at and abuses anyone who dares to suggest 
such an idea to him. In a spirit of mirth he wantonly runs a 
mortal risk, and (to proceed by the flickering light of the pro- 
logue), after a hard struggle in which his boasted health, strength, 
and spirits avail him nothing, he succumbs. He has no merit 
of his own to save him from eternal punishment for his pride 



2o6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

on earth, and it is only by the intercession of the Virgin Mary 
with her Son that his soul is received into heaven. 

The other play of this class is Everyman} the best known of 
all the Moralities, — or, to dispense with understatements, the 
only Morality that is generally known. Everyman is to be 
grouped with The Castle of Perseverance, and, as far as one 
can judge, with The Pryde of Lyfe, by the tone of restrained 
pathos, by the power to excite the emotions of pity and terror, 
which these three plays possess in common, and which mark 
them off from all other English Moralities. And among these 
three there is no question of supremacy. The Castle of Per- 
severance is marred, from this point of view, by a good deal of 
claptrap and roaring of devils ; The Pryde of Lyfe presents a 
king who at first repels our sympathy by his extravagant boast- 
ing ; but Everyman is sombre and restrained from the begin- 
ning in both speech and action^ and the hero, as he goes to 
obey the summons of Death, takes on a human interest and a 
tragic pathos that make him unique among Morality figures. 

After a short summary of the action by the Messenger, God 
speaks alone, lamenting the condition of men and the poor re- 
turn they make Him for His sacrifice. They are so led astray 
by worldly riches that He must now deal out justice to them. 
Having thus decided He calls Death, " His mighty messenger," 
and instructs him to go to Everyman with a summons to depart 
on a pilgrimage, taking a " sure reckoning " with him. Death 
delivers his message, and Everyman is at first completely non- 
plussed by the strangeness of the demand. But the messenger 
tells him explicitly what he must hasten to do. 

On thee thou must take a long journey, 
Therefore thy book of count with thee thou bring, 
For turn again thou cannot by no way : 
And look thou be sure of thy reckoning ; 

^ Dodsley, Vol. I . The play was printed bef ore 1 53 1 , but is of uncertain date. 



EVERYMAN 207 

For before God thou shalt answer and show 
Thy many bad deeds, and good but a few, 
How thou hast spent thy life, and in what wise, 
Before the chief lord of paradise. 

Everyman confesses that he is not ready to yield a reckoning 
on such short notice, but thinks that if he had "twelve year" 
in which to make preparation he could get his accounts perfectly 
clear. Death, however, will listen to no such stipulations, and 
denies even the humble request for a respite until the morrow. 
Then Everyman inquires piteously if he will be allowed to "come 
again shortly," providing he makes this pilgrimage and delivers 
his reckoning. " What ! " exclaims Death, " Weenest thou thy 
life is given thee, and thy worldly goods also ? " "I had weened 
so, verily," answers Everyman. " Nay, nay," Death assures him, 

it was but lend thee ; 
For, as soon as thou art gone, 
Another awhile shall have it, and then go therefro, 
Even as thou hast done. 

So Everyman, bowed down with grief, resigns himself to the 
stern necessity of complying with the summons of Death, and 
seeks about for friends to accompany him on this dreaded pil- 
grimage. He first repairs to Fellowship, who marvels at his 
appearance of sorrow, and demands heartily to know what he 
can do for his friend. Everyman tells him of Death's order, 
and beseeches him to come on the lonely journey. But this is 
not what Fellowship expected. He flatly refuses to take the pil- 
grimage. " And yet " he adds, 

if thou wilt eat and drink, and make good cheer, 
Or haunt to women the lusty company, 
I would not forsake you. 

Leaving the fickle Fellowship to his pleasures, Everyman 
turns to Kindred and Cousin, comforting himself that here, at 
least, he will find constant friends, " for kind will creep where 



208 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

it may not go." Kindred and Cousin greet him lovingly and 
urge him to make any request that he may have in mind ; and 
Cousin adds, " wot ye well, we will live and die together." 
Thus reassured, Everyman asks them to go with him on his 
long journey and help him to render his account. But Kindred 
declines, offering to send his maid instead, and Cousin is seized 
with a sudden cramp in the toe. Everyman turns away from 
them almost in despair. There is now but one left of all the 
friends who have accompanied him thus far in life. He reflects : 

Yet in my mind a thing there is : 
All my life I have loved riches ; 
If that my Goods now help me might, 
It would make my heart full light. 

Goods appears on the summons and assures his friend that he 
can bring him remedy for any sorrow or adversity in the world. 
Everyman replies that his sorrow is not of this world, but is 
caused by the necessity of yielding an account " before the 
highest Jupiter of all " ; and, since money '* maketh all right 
that is wrong," he has come for his friend Goods to accompany 
him before the seat of God. " Nay, nay, Everyman," answers 
Goods, "I sing another song; I follow no man in such voy- 
ages." He explains to the dismayed Everyman that it would 
only make things worse for him if they should go together. 
Since he. Goods, has made the account "blotted and blind" 
he is hardly the one to call upon now to make it clear. And, 
he continues, he does not belong to Everyman, but was only 
lent to him for a while. " I had weened otherwise," answers 
Everyman with pathetic simplicity, and in utter despair turns 
to Good Deeds, whom he has neglected for years. She answers 
him weakly : 

Here I lie cold in the ground ; 
Thy sins have me so sore bound 
That I cannot stir. 



EVERYMAN 209 

Everyman begs her for counsel in his sore need, and she tells 
him that, though she is too weak to perform the journey her- 
self, she has a sister called Knowledge who will be true to him 
and assist him to make the dread reckoning. Knowledge enters, 
promises to abide with him, and leads him to Confession, who 
gives him a scourge called Penance. Everyman confesses his 
sins with grief and uses the scourge on his body, after which 
Good Deeds is able to stand up and go with him. In prepara- 
tion for the journey Knowledge gives him the garment [of sor- 
row, called Contrition, and the sisters direct him to summon 
Discretion, Strength, Beauty, and Five Wits to counsel him 
upon the way. He assembles these counsellors, and they all 
agree to go, promising to stand by their master forever. 

Thus the whole company proceeds on the pilgrimage, with 
Everyman leading. But soon he becomes so faint that he can 
walk no farther, and must creep into a cave to rest ; whereat 
Beauty starts to leave him and, to his despairing appeal to her, 
answers that she would not remain "and thou wouldst give me 
all the gold in thy chest." Strength also asserts, " The game 
liketh me not at all," and takes his departure, followed by Dis- 
cretion. Last of all. Five Wits decides to leave, untouched by 
Everyman's final appeal, " I took you for my best friend." 

Of all his earthly companions only Knowledge and Good 
Deeds now remain ; and Knowledge warns him that, although 
she will not forsake him before death "for no manner of danger," 
yet she can follow him no further. Everyman grows weaker 
every moment, and at last, commending his spirit into the hands 
of God, he dies. Knowledge hears the singing of angels, and 
rejoices that Everyman's soul has been received into bliss. Then 
an angel appears and summons Good Deeds to follow the soul 
of her master to heaven. 

Everyman, Fellowship, Kindred, and Cousin, the type fig- 
ures of the play, having been discussed thoroughly in an earlier 



2IO THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

chapter,! ^eed no further comment here. Beauty, Strength, 
Knowledge, Discretion, and Five Wits are personifications of a 
different order. Goods represents earthly riches ; Good Deeds, 
the charitable acts performed by Man during life; and Con- 
fession, the sacrament of confession and absolution. None of 
the other figures needs explanation. 

The play is an allegory of mankind in the presence of death. 
Man, seeing that his end is near, realizes with deep sorrow that 
his worldly possessions and the friends and kinsmen whom he 
loved so deeply must be left behind. He knows that he must 
yield a reckoning, before the throne of God, of his life here on 
earth ; and though he has performed good deeds, yet his sins 
have been so many that they overbalance the good. His only 
reasonable course now is to make full confession of his sins and 
pray for absolution. Having performed this he undergoes pen- 
ance and is filled with sorrow and contrition for the evil he has 
done. Thus his spirit is purified, and the good deeds of his life 
stand out more clearly. As he approaches death his strength, 
his intelligence, and lastly his faculties desert him. The soul 
leaves the body, and, by virtue of the good deeds done on earth, 
is received into heaven. 

1 See pp. 5-8, above. 



CHAPTER VIII 

MORALITIES DEALING WITH RELIGIOUS AND 
POLITICAL CONTROVERSY 

Several of the Moralities already considered have shown 
strong controversial tendencies, but the fact that they are 
modelled after conventional Morality schemes — the contro- 
versial element coming in only as a secondary consideration — 
made it more reasonable to treat them under the classes to 
which those schemes belong. But there are three plays (strictly 
speaking, two plays and a half-play) which, while conforming 
in all essentials to the general definition of the Morality, are 
avowedly and primarily controversial in tone. Their sole aim is 
to expose and correct national abuses. All the other Moralities 
make it their chief aim to preach morality to mankind in general, 
though several of them have also a satiric bearing on national 
affairs. But the three plays of the present class have nothing 
to do with a general inculcation of morality, and would only be 
hampered by adopting the conventional schemes which pre- 
suppose this purpose. They have to do with national problems 
of religion and politics, and employ great freedom of allegorical 
plot in order to exhibit these problems in all possible aspects. 
These three plays are The Satyre of the Thrie Estaites, Part II 
(a complete play in itself). King Johan, and Respublica. 

The Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaites has already been 
treated in part.^ The first section of the play presents the 
human hero, who goes through the regular stages of State of 
Goodness, Fall from Grace, Life in Sin, and Final Conversion. 

1 See pp. 87 ff., above. 
211 



212 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

This section having been treated in its regular place with 
Class I, b, it now remains to discuss the second part of the 
play, which follows a different scheme, or rather dispenses 
altogether with a conventional scheme and devotes itself to a 
vigorous attack on the political and religious evils of Scotland 
shortly before the Reformation, with suggestions for reform. 

In Part II the human hero. Rex Humanitas, drops into in- 
significance. He takes his seat with the parliament, and when 
his voice is heard it is on the side of right ; but with his final 
conversion at the close of Part I he ceased to be an important 
figure. Our interest from now on is centered upon the wranglings 
of the " thrie estaites," including the various statements of 
national abuses which, as a matter of fact, had much to do with 
the religious revolution which was soon to follow. 

The action begins with a proclamation of parliament by 
Diligence. Then the three estates, represented by Spiritualitie, 
Temporalitie, and the Merchand, come walking in backwards, 
led by their Vices. They address the King and take their seats, 
together with Gude Counsell and Correctioun. Then the King 
makes a short speech, indicating that parliament is assembled 
for the purpose of reforming abuses and bringing oppressors to 
punishment " with help and counsell of King Correctioun." 
Spiritualitie speaks up hastily and warns the king against any 
sudden reforms. "The peopill of this Regioun," he argues, 
" may nocht indure extreme correctioun." Then, with a stem 
rebuke to the lords for attempting to hinder the progress of 
reform, Correctioun sends Diligence out to proclaim that it is 
the King's will that all who are in any way oppressed shall 
come and make their grievance known. 

At this invitation Johne the Common-weill rushes eagerly 
forward, shouting : 

Out of my gait, for God's saik let me ga : 
Tell me againe, gude Master, quhat ye say, 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTAITES, II 213 

and when Diligence repeats his offer he responds fervently : 

Thankit be Christ, that buir the crown of thorne, 
For I was never sa blyth sen I was borne. 

Diligence leads him over to the King, who learns his name, and 
then enquires why he carries so sad a face. Johne replies that 
it is because the three estates go backwards. The King has 
heard this report before, and is anxious to know the names of 
the Vices who lead the estates. Johne, who is perfectly familiar 
with them, proceeds to explain : 

Thair canker cullours, I ken them be the heads : 
As for our reverent fathers of Spiritualitie, 
They ar led be Covetice and cairles Sensualitie. 
And 2& ye se Temporalitie has neid of correctioun, 
Quhilk hes lang tyme bene led be Publick Oppressioun : 
Loe ! quhair the loun lyis lurkand at his back ; 
Get up, I think to se thy craig gar ane raip crack. 
Loe ! heir is Falset, and Dissait, weill I ken, 
Leiders of the Merchants and sillie crafts-men. 

Johne demands that these Vices be put out, and Correctioun 
orders the sergeant to lead them to the stocks. Then the doors 
are closed and the session begins, with Johne the Common-weill 
and Pauper guarding the doors. Gude Counsell states the main 
grievance of Scotland, and Johne follows him up vigorously with 
a more detailed account of the ignorance and oppressions of 
the clergy. Correctioun then orders the three estates to em- 
brace Johne and to promise him friendship and protection for 
the future. Temporalitie and the Merchand consent, but Spirit- 
ualitie refuses, thinking it unwise " in sic maters for to conclude 
ouir haistilie." Then come Johne's more important charges of 
sensuality, ignorance, and corruption among the spiritual lords. 
Spiritualitie insults him and calls him a liar, and demands that 
he shall be thrown out ; but he holds stoutly to his indictment, 
and is backed up by Pauper and by Gude Counsell, who reads 



214 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

from Paul's epistle to Timothy on the subject. Veritie and Chas- 
titie come up and add their accusations against the " Spirituall 
Stait," and Veritie concludes : 

My prudent Lords, I say, that pure craftsmen, 
Abufe sum Prelats are mair for to commend : 
Gar examine them, and sa ye sail sune ken 
How thay, in vertew, Bischops dois transcend. 

Then the Tailzour and the Sowtar are brought in and questioned 
about their trades. They answer intelligently, showing that they 
understand their vocations, whereas the spiritual lords have 
demonstrated that they are entirely ignorant concerning theirs. 
Gude Counsell breaks out into passionate appeal : 

Lord, my God, this is an mervelous thing. 
How sic misordour in this realme sould ring. 
Sowtars and Tailzeours, thay are far mair expert 
In thair pure craft, and in thair handie art. 
Nor ar our Prelatis in thair vocatioun : 

1 pray yow, Sirs, mak reformatioun. 

Our attention is now distracted for a moment from the 
wrangling of the three estates by the appearance of Common 
Thift. He has heard of the promised corrections, and is in a 
pitiful state of fear and anxiety to escape. As he passes the 
stocks he is greeted by his old friend and master Oppressioun, 
who is there detained. Oppressioun persuades him to take his 
place in the stocks for half an hour, while he shall go to procure 
relief for them both from Temporalitie. When the transference 
has taken place Oppressioun starts off gaily, hinting that it will 
be a long while before he and Common Thift will meet again ; 
so the unfortunate Thift is left to bemoan the uneven distribution 
of honor among thieves. 

We return again to the doings in parliament. Diligence 
brings in three " famous Clarks," who are welcomed by the 
King and instructed about preaching by Correctioun. The 



SATYRE OF THE THRIE ESTAITES, II 215 

spiritual lords are now questioned concerning their work. 
Spiritualitie, answering first, shows that his conception of 
the ghostly duties refers to the maintaining of "concubeins" 
and the heaping up of wealth for his illegitimate children, 
but has not the remotest connection with the spiritual welfare 
of his people. Correctioun remarks : , 

I wein'd your office had bene for til preich, 
And God's law to the peopill teich. 

The Abbot, the Person, and the Priores, when questioned, show 
the same zeal for pleasure and profound ignorance of duty. 
Correctioun tells the Doctour (one of the three Clarks) to 
preach a short sermon on the duties of the clergy, and the 
Doctour complies, to the complete mystification of Spiritualitie 
and his friends. 

The lords of the spiritual state are now despoiled of their 
robes, which are given to the three Clarks. The Priores is also 
stripped of her habit, and it is found that she has "ane kirtill 
of silk " under it. A friar is spied whispering in the ear of the 
Prelate. He also is seized and stripped, and it is discovered 
that he is Flatterie in masquerade. Then Johne the Common- 
weill is gorgeously clothed and given a seat in parliament, after 
which the Vices are taken out of the stocks and led to the 
gallows, where they are all hanged except Flatterie, who is 
banished from Scotland. 

The play proper is now ended, but there still remains the 
Interlude of the Sermon of Folie, who comes in with " Folie 
Hattis " to sell. The King spies him and sends Diligence to 
summon him to the royal presence. Folie holds off the mes- 
senger for a while, but finally goes to the King and explains his 
identity. Then he hangs his hats on the pulpit and gets up to 
preach a sermon on fools and folly. He enumerates the differ- 
ent kinds of fools " dwelland in eurie cuntrie," and winds up 



2l6 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

with a disquisition on the folly of kings and emperors in making 
war on each other. Diligence, concluding the Interlude, apolo- 
gizes for the tediousness of the play, and commends the audience 
to the protection of Christ. 

There are, it may be seen, a few important changes in the 
r61es played in this second part of the play. The subordination 
of Rex has already been noticed. There is no further use for 
Wantonnes, Placebo, and Solace, who in the first part repre- 
sented only the personal desires of the hero for pleasure. They 
were converted into characters representing innocent desires for 
pleasure, and, in any case, would have no function in a satire of 
purely national abuses ; so, except for a brief appearance at the 
beginning of the action, we see no more of them. But the most 
important change is the introduction of Johne the Common- 
weill, sometimes referred to simply as " the Commonweill." 
He is the type-representative of the common people, and, in the 
political aspect which the play has now assumed, becomes the 
chief figure. There is mention made of a new Vice, Covetice 
(covetousness), who combines with "cairles Sensualitie " to lead 
Spiritualitie into parliament and then disappears so far as the 
play is concerned. Publick Oppressioun, another Vice, leads 
Temporalitie into parliament, and appears later in the play. 
Common Thift, probably best regarded as an abstract figure 
representing thievery, appears toward the close of the play in 
an unimportant r61e. The Priores comes on to participate in the 
downfall of the Catholic Church ; and finally, during the ex- 
posure of the " Lords of the Spirituall Stait," three " famous 
Clarks " are brought in to exemplify the superiority of Protes- 
tant learning and virtue to Catholic ignorance and corruption. 
The most important of all these changes are the introduction 
of Johne the Common-weill, the practical disappearance of 
Wantonnes, Placebo, and Solace, and the subordination of Rex 
Humanitas as a dramatic figure. 



KYNGE JO HAN 21/ 

The action, being interpreted, runs thus : The CathoHc Church 
is responsible for many of the worst evils of the time. The 
spiritual lords are sensual and covetous; they care for nothing 
but personal gain and pleasure, and are ignorant of their sim- 
plest duties. The temporal lords are scarcely better. They band 
together for the oppression of the common people ; and as for 
the merchants, they practise their trade with dishonesty and de- 
ceit. What is needed is a complete renovation. The Catholic 
dignitaries should be exposed and driven out of office, and re- 
placed by learned doctors of the Protestant faith, who are zealous 
and mindful of their duties. The common people, who form the 
backbone of a realm, should be relieved from the oppression of 
the rich and given a voice in the government of the country. 
Then the land will be freed from oppression, dishonesty, and 
ignorance, and will flourish under the rule of liberty. 

Kynge Johan} the next play to be considered, is listed some- 
times as a Chronicle Play, sometimes as a Tragedy, sometimes 
as a Morality, and sometimes as a sort of amphibious creation. 
But, whatever the play may have been in a former edition,^ one 

1 Written by John Bale. The text used here is that in Manly, Vol. I. Fleay 
(p. 62) comments on the date and production: " King Johan, two plays in one, 
was edited by Collier from a MS. in Jhe Duke of Devonshire's library, for the 
Camden Society, in 1838. This MS. was formerly in the possession of the 
municipal body of Ipswich, where the plays, beyond doubt, must have been 
performed. From p. 66, 1. 13, the MS. is in the handwriting of Bishop Bale, 
who died in 1563, and as it contains a distinct statement (p. 102) that it was 
produced under Queen Elizabeth it must date between 1558 and 1563. She 
was at Ipswich 1561, Aug. 5-10, and at no other time. The concluding prayer 
shows that the plays were acted before her : and there can be no doubt that 
it was on this occasion." 

2 The MS. spelling varies, showing that Bale's alterations were made on a 
transcript of an older play, but this does not necessarily indicate a different 
authorship. Fleay concludes (p. 62) that "as Bale, in his own list of his 
dramatic works, mentions one in idiomate matemo de Joanne de Anglorum Rege, 
and no other play on John of so early a date is anywhere heard of, it is almost 
certain that the original play, as well as the fashioned one, was by him. This 
is confirmed by internal evidence of style." 



2i8 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

thing seems clear from the evidence of the text as it now stands, 
that is, that Kyiige Johan is a MoraHty, though with an historical 
protagonist, who, by the way, is idealized until he becomes, to 
all intents and purposes, the type of a good or just ruler. All 
the other characters in the play are unexceptionable from the 
point of view of the Morality, and the fact that some of them 
pose at times as well-known historical figures does not affect the 
situation. The Vices are Vices from beginning to end of the 
play, even though, for greater effectiveness in their vicious work, 
they agree with each other in one section of the play to proclaim 
themselves personages of high rank in the Church. In almost 
every English Morality the Vices resort to the trick of changing 
their, names for added effectiveness ; and to say, for instance, 
that Private Wealth is the historical Cardinal Pandulph simply 
because in part of the play he agrees to call himself Cardinal 
Pandulph, is on a par with saying that the Seven Deadly Sins 
are really seven dramatic Virtues because when they attempt 
to seduce Man they usually proclaim themselves to be Virtues. 
It is evident that a thread of history runs through the play 
from beginning to end, but this historical thread could be 
removed in a few moments and the play would remain, in tex- 
ture, exactly as it is now ; whereas any attempt to remove the 
allegorical element would result in the complete dismemberment 
of the play. 

Of course Kynge Johan is not an absolutely pure Morality, 
since one of the chief characters, Kynge Johan himself, is a real 
historical figure. But Kynge Johan is only in a half-sense the 
hero of the play, since, if he were wholly so, the play should 
end as a tragedy with his death. Nor does the action proceed 
with historical events as in a Chronicle Plav, but advances, 
after the orthodox fashion of Moralities, to a triumphant and 
satisfactory conclusion with the complete overthrow of the 



KYNGE JO HAN 2 1 9 

Vices and the establishment of peace and right. The death 
of Johan, then, which would be the logical culmination of 
the play if it were a Tragedy or a Chronicle Play, is only an 
incident — though an important one — in the play as it stands. 
Kynge Johan, in fact, comes nearer filling all the conditions 
for a pure Morality than does The Life and Repentance of 
Marie Magdalene} 

The play has a good deal of that peculiarly venomous anti- 
Catholic invective of which Bale was the undisputed master. 
For a deliberately planned, climactic insult it would take some 
ingenuity to beat a conversation that takes place between Sed- 
wyson and Dyssymulacyon when these two worthies pause in 
their labors to work out a scheme of relationship. 

Dys. I have ever loved both the and thy condycyon. 

Sed. Thow must nedes, I trowe, for we cum of ij bretheme : 
Yf thu remember, owr fathers were on mans chylderne, — 
Thow comyst of Falsed and I of Prevy Treason. 

Dys. Than Infydelyte owr grandfather ys by reason. 

Sed. Mary, that ys trewe, and his begynner Antycrist, 
The great Pope of Rome, or fyrst veyne popysh prist.^ 

Sedwyson's characterization of his progenitor as the " fyrst 
veyne popysh prist " indicates a fault in this play which has 
already been discussed in the case of another Morality.^ In the 
absence of Virtues to maintain the right, a Vice will sometimes 
grow exceedingly solicitous that the audience should understand 
the full nature of the villainy that is being planned, and will 
make an explanation that sounds like a remorseful confession. 
At one point Sedwyson, who is the chief Vice, sends Dyssymu- 
lacyon to bring in Pryvat Welth and Usurpyd Power, and when 
they come he explains to his audience the allegorical signification 

1 See p. Ill, above. ^ p. ^^g. 

^ Marie Magdalene. See p. iii, above. 



220 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

of what is going on. The explanation, so far as tone is concerned, 
would be much more in keeping with a Virtue. 

Surs, marke well this gere, for now yt begynnyth to worke : 
False Dyssymulacion doth bryng in Privat Welth : 
And Usurpyd Power, which is more ferce than a Turke, 
Cummeth in by hym to decaye all spyrytuall helth : 
Than I by them bothe, as clere experyence telth : 
We iiij by ower crafts Kyng Johan wyll so subdwe, 
That for iijC yers all Englond shall yt rewe,^ 

and Dyssymulacion adds : 

Of the clergy, frynds, report lyke as ye se. 
That ther Privat Welth cummyth ever in by me.^ 

This fault — from an artistic point of view — of explaining 
the allegorical signification of an action, is tolerably common in 
the Moralities, especially in those with strong religious tenden- 
cies. The pleasure to be derived from allegory consists largely 
in the feeling that one is grasping a meaning which is merely 
implied ; and when a composer of allegory, more anxious for 
the eternal salvation of his hearers than for their amusement, 
adopts the position of interpreter, he insults the understanding 
of any hearer who is quick-witted enough to grasp the meaning 
for himself. 

Kynge Johan opens the play with a soliloquy showing his 
intention to rule his country well, to work justice, and to act in 
accordance with the will of God. He is then joined by the 
widow Ynglond, who is in sore distress from the abuses of 
the clergy. She asks Johan for justice from these despoilers 
of her peace, and he is very S3aTipathetic. Before they can 
make any plans, however, Sedwyson intrudes himself and falls 
to cracking lewd jokes about the suggestiveness of the pair's 
being alone. Johan sternly orders him out, but he retorts 

1 P. 552. 



KYNGE JO HAN 2 2 1 

confidently, " I shall abyde in Ynglond,^ magry yowr harte," and 
adds that, through the Pope, he is able " to subdewe bothe kyng 
and keyser." He persists in his ribaldry, and abuses Ynglond 
at every opportunity. However, Ynglond goes on patiently re- 
citing her wrongs to the king, and explaining the vile practices 
of the Pope and his followers, who have driven her husband, 
God, out of the country. Johan promises to help her, and she 
goes out. Then Sedwyson goes on in his mocking way to ex- 
plain himself to the king. He makes no attempt to play the 
usual Vice's role of deceit and concealment of identity, but boldly 
asserts his power, and maintains that all Johan's subjects are on 
his side. Then, in spite of Johan's efforts to detain him for 
punishment, he hurries out on his business, and Nobelyte 
comes in. 

The king is very much disturbed at Sedwyson's claim that he 
has the sympathy of the people of the realm, and he immedi- 
ately confronts Nobelyte with his suspicions ; but the latter 
assures him that he has always hated Sedwyson " for his in- 
iquite." Johan is somewhat mollified, but still expresses doubts. 

A clere tokyn that is of trew nobelyte ; 

But I pray to God we fynde yt not other-wyse. 

Yt was never well syns the clargy wrowght by practyse, 

And left the Scripture for mens ymagynacyons, 

Dyvydyng them-selvys in so many congrygacyons 

Of monkes, chanons, and fryers, of dyvers colors and facyons. 

Clargy now puts in an appearance, and by his insolent de- 
mands at once provokes a hot argument with the King. Then 
Syvyll Order appears, and joins sides with the King in the argu- 
ment against Popery, as upheld by Clargy ; and Nobelyte also 

1 The name " Ynglond," it may be seen, is rather equivocally employed. 
Johan, in his opening speech, announces that he is " Kyng of Ynglond." 
Then the personified Ynglond comes in as a widow, and, in her presence, 
Sedwyson announces that he " shall abyde in Ynglond." It is, of course, the 
old story of confusion between literal and allegorical statement. 



222 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

sympathizes with the King, though his defective intellect does 
not permit him to go beyond commending his leader when the 
latter makes a good point. At length Johan and Syvyll Order 
retire, and Nobelyte makes an abortive attempt to carry on the 
argument, but is soon brought to admit : 

I am unlernyt : my wytts are sone confowndyd. 

Then he and Clargy part company, and Clargy sets out '' to 
sewe un-to Rome for the Churches lyberte." 

In the next scene Sedwyson comes in to await the appearance 
of friends "' from the stues." He does not have to wait long. 
In a few moments Dyssymulacyon enters, singing the litany, and 
the two friends fall into a discussion on the state of Popery in 
England. They agree that something must speedily be done to 
better conditions, as the "abbeys go downe every-where " ; and 
Dyssymulacyon promises to get a child of his own bringing up 
to help Sedwyson in his efforts. Sedwyson is anxious to know 
who this child is, and his friend informs him : 

Mary, Pryvat Welth ; now hayve I tolde the what. 

I made hym a monke and a perfyt cloysterer, 

And in the abbeye he began fyrst celerer, 

Than pryor, than abbote of a thousand pownd land, no wors, 

Now he is a bysshope and rydeth with an hondryd hors, 

And, as I here say, he is lyke to be a Cardynall. 

When Pryvat Welth comes, Dyssymulacyon adds, he will bring 
Usurpyd Power with him, " and than the gam is ower." Dys- 
symulacyon is despatched for his son, who in turn brings his 
friend along with him ; and Sedwyson, with a keen eye to the 
allegorical significance of the scene, persuades Usurpyd Power to 
retire with him for a moment and then bear him in upon his back, 

That yt may be sayde that, fyrst, Dyssymulacyon, 
Browght in Privat Welth to every Cristen nacion, 
And that Privat Welth browght in Usurpid Power, 
And he Sedycyon, in cytye, towne, and tower. 



KYNGE JO HAN 223 

The assembled company enter into a long discussion on the 
ways and means of maintaining popery in the land, and in the 
end they disguise themselves ; Usurpyd Power as the Pope, 
Pryvat Welth as a Cardinal, and Sedwyson as a monk ; while 
Dyssymulacyon explains to the audience that they are prepar- 
ing to punish Johan for rebelling against Holy Church. The 
so-called Pope changes the names of his disguised friends to 
complete the deception. Pryvat Welth becomes Pandulphus, 
Sedwyson becomes Stephen Langton, and Dyssymulacyon be- 
comes Raymundus. They all set out to compass the destruction 
of the King, and the Interpretour comes in to give a foretaste of 
coming events. 

In the next act Sedwyson and Nobelyte come in conversing,^ 
and Nobelyte grieves over the controversy now raging between 
the King and the Church. Sedwyson speaks warmly in favor of 
the Church, and in the end Nobelyte kneels down for his blessing. 
After promising complete submission to the Church, Nobelyte 
goes out, and Sedwyson is joined by Clargy and Syvyll Order. 
Sedwyson unfolds to them his plans for bringing Johan into 
subjection to the Church, and they all retire. 

Johan now appears, lamenting that he is so persecuted by 
the Church for doing what the welfare of his country demands. 
Pryvat Welth comes in " lyke a Cardinall," and commands 
Johan, in the Pope's name, to make peace with the Church on 
the Church's terms. Johan refuses indignantly, and Pryvat 
Welth curses him in the name of the Pope. Syvyll Order 
and Nobelyte enter, but they refuse to converse on terms of 
friendship with the King, since he is now " a man defylyd." 
Johan is left alone ; but soon the widow Ynglond comes in 

1 There is a notable inconsistency in this scene. Sedwyson, who has been 
named Stephen Langton, here speaks of himself as Good Perfectyon, a mes- 
senger from the Pope. He has no reason for giving this name before Nobelyte, 
and this is probably a feature of the original play overlooked in the proces.s 
of remaking. 



224 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

with her son Commynalte, who is blind, " for want of knowlage 
in Christes lyvely veryte," as he explains. Ynglond reminds 
Johan of his promise to relieve her distress, but he answers 
mournfully that his hands are tied and he can do nothing 
for her. 

Pryvat Welth (or Pandulphus, as he now calls himself) ap- 
proaches the group and orders Commynalte out to wait on his 
captains Nobelyte and Clargy, who are preparing to join the 
French king against their country. Commynalte goes meekly, 
but Ynglond disowns him for it, and refuses to leave the King. 
After some arguments, accompanied by threats on the part of 
Pryvat Welth, Johan gives up the crown rather than involve his 
country in war. Then Treason comes in, arrayed as a priest, 
and joins forces with the other enemies of the King. 

Johan and Ynglond go out, and Dyssymulacyon joins Sed- 
wyson with a cup of poison which he plans to give to Johan. 
He is determined to put this scheme through at all costs, and 
says that he will drink half the poison himself if such a step is 
necessary to throw the King off his guard. Then when Johan 
reappears, with the faithful Ynglond still in attendance, he 
introduces himself under the new name Simon of Swynsett, 
and offers him the drink. Johan is extremely thirsty, but also 
a bit suspicious, and he demands that the supposed Simon shall 
first drink half the contents of the cup. The demand is com- 
plied with, and Johan takes what is left. Then the poison begins 
to work on Dyssymulacyon, and he staggers out in a dying con- 
dition, calling for his friend Sedwyson. Johan himself is soon 
overcome, and is supported out by the grief-stricken Ynglond. 

Veryte now appears and assures the audience of Johan's 
honesty and loyalty to his country. Though he is dead his 
noble acts still live, and his Christian zeal is declared by his 
expulsion of the Jews from the country. Nobelyte, Clargy, and 
Syvyll Order enter ; and Verity rebukes them all roundly for 



KYNGE JOHAN 225 

their cruelty to the King, finally reducing them to sorrow and 
contrition. Imperyall Majestye approaches, Veryte reports to 
him that he has performed his commands, and then the two go 
on to harangue the repentant culprits, who, to compensate for 
their wickedness, promise to exile the Pope and his followers 
from the country and to defend the supremacy of Imperyall 
Majestye. Sedwyson joins them and argues violently in behalf 
of the Pope, but in the end he is sent out, under the guard of 
Syyyll Order, to be hanged. Then Imperyall Majestye, Nobelyte, 
and Clargy give each other assurances of fidelity, lay plans for 
establishing the true religion, and end the play with a prayer 
for the Queen. 

Most of the characters are easy to interpret. Sedwyson, 
Piyvat Welth, Dyssymulacyon, Usurpyd Power, and Treason 
are personifications — the Vices of the play. Veryte and Im- 
peryall Majestye are the Virtues, and the latter stands for kingly 
power. Syvyll Order is more mysterious. He defines his posi- 
tion thus : 

Ye know very well, to set all thynges in order 

I have moche ado, and many thynges passe fro me, 

For yowr common-welth, and that in every border 

For offyces, for londes, for iawe and for lyberte, 

And for transgressors I appoynt the penalte ; 

That cytes and townes maye stand in quiotose peace, 

That all theft and murder, with other vyce, maye seace.^ 

That is, he may be a personification standing for national 
justice, or a type representing the administrators of justice. 
Since he receives his directions from Johan in company with 
Clargy and Nobelyte, — two type figures like Spiritualitie and 
Temporalitie in the Thrie Estaites, — and turns against Johan 
when the latter is excommunicated, he had best be regarded as 
a type figure standing for administrators of justice. Johan is 
consistently in the right throughout the play, and it would be 

^ P- 538. 



226 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

unreasonable to suppose that national justice could ever be op- 
posed to him. Commynalte is a type standing for the common 
people, like Johne the Common-weill in the Thrie Estaites. 
Ynglond is a symbolic figure representing England, and Kynge 
Johan is the historical king, idealized to represent the good king 
who is beset by treacherous foes. 

The play in its historical aspect needs no explanation. Alle- 
gorically it may be thus interpreted : In the past England has 
been well-nigh ruined by internal strife, caused by the Romish 
Church. The spiritual lords made it their aim to amass private 
fortunes, practised dissimulation, and usurped the power belong- 
ing to the king. They did their utmost to raise sedition in the 
land, not stopping even at treason. The common people sym- 
pathized with the king in his efforts to bring peace to the land, 
but they were rendered ignorant by their lack of religious in- 
struction, and could not be of much service. The nobles and 
judges were well-meaning and tried to serve their king faith- 
fully, but the Church had such power over them that when it 
pronounced a curse upon the king they did not dare to stir in 
his defence. Thus kingly authority was rendered of no avail, 
and the country was plunged in misery for three hundred years. 
But now the beneficent power of the throne, assisted by the 
enlightened knowledge of God's truth as introduced by the 
Protestant faith, has restored the country to peace and happi- 
ness, and the old vices of the Catholic Church have lost their 
power in England. 

The final play of this class is "A merye enterlude entitled 
Respublica, made in the yeare of oure Lorde 1553, and the 
firste year of the mooste prosperous Reigne of our moste gracious 
Soveraigne, Quene Marye the first." ^ After having Protestant 
abuse dinned into our ears through the last two plays it is a 

^ Edited by Leonard A. Magnus for the Early English Text Society, London, 
1905. The editor conjectures that the author was Nicholas Udall. 



RESPUBLICA 227 

relief to hear at last a word from the other side. But the author, 
though his sympathies at least were on the side of the Catholic 
Queen Mary, was no Bishop Bale, and he contented himself 
with taking a general view, through the allegorical telescope, 
of England's condition when his " moste gracious Soveraigne 
Quene Marye " came to the rescue. There is no direct attempt 
to fasten blame upon the Protestant Church. The vices " held 
up to scorn " are national vices, and we are only to infer that 
they were allowed full scope, before Mary's time, owing to the 
laxity of Protestant rule. 

We have a special debt of gratitude to pay to the author — 
whoever he may have been — for putting into the mouth of his 
Prologue an unusually concise statement of the purpose of his 
play ; which statement, when broadened, will be found to sug- 
gest many of the theories which have been insisted on at some 
length throughout this work. The Prologue states : 

the Name of our playe ys Respublica certaine : 

cure meaninge ys (I say, not, as by plaine story, 

but as yt were in figure by an allegorye) 

to shewe that all commen weales Ruin and decaye 

from tyme to tyme hath been, ys, and shalbe alwaie, 

whan Insolence, Flaterie, Opression, 

and Avarice have the Rewle in their possession,^ 

That is, though the play has its special application to the 
social conditions in England at the accession of Queen Mary, it 
is universalized, by the allegorical method, into a depiction of 
the causes which bring on the ruin of a commonwealth. This 
is the first and last time we encounter an open avowal of the 
employment of allegory. 

Respublica just misses the technical structure of the class 
representing the struggle of Vices and Virtues for the posses- 
sion of man. The Vices, Avarice, Insolence, Oppression, and 

ip. I. 



228 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Adulation, all find it necessary to get into the service of the 
widow Respublica in order to carry on their schemes. But their 
schemes are merely for self-aggrandizement, — by which we are 
to infer the selfish schemings of politicians and men in power. 
They make no attempt to corrupt Respublica, and, in fact, avoid 
her company except when they feel that it is time to p:.^oh up 
another report of the good work they are doing. In other v^^ords, 
the entry into her service is only the stepping-stone toward the 
fulfilling of their own schemes of personal aggrandizement. 
The regular Vices of Class I, b, do not work for themselves,^ — 
except when in humorous by-play they refer to having robbed 
houses and picked pockets in order to get spending money for 
the taverns and stews. Their single aim is to get into the hero's 
favor, and no personal or selfish motive enters into considera- 
tion. But in this play and the one last treated the case is 
entirely different. In Kynge Johan the Vices worked for their 
own evil interests, and arrayed themselves openly against Johan 
because he understood them and opposed those interests; in 
the present play the Vices have their own interests uppermost, 
and array themselves against Respublica, not openly, since that 
would defeat their aims, but secretly, to deceive her and to 
enrich themselves at her expense. Thus they fail to make the 
appeal of their brethren in Class I, b, who frequently win our 
sympathy by their hearty devotion to the cause. 

The important conclusion to be drawn from this is that in 
the plays of Class I, b, the evil figures simply represent vices 
which assail the heart of man, while in the present class the 
evil figures, though primarily representing national vices, also 

1 There are slight exceptions to this rule in the case of some Vices in 
Magnyfycence and in the Satyre of the TTirie Estaites. These selfish Vices have 
been discussed above in the treatment of these Moralities. They were rendered 
necessary by the underlying satirical bearing ot the plays. In so far as Mag- 
nyfycence and the Satyre employ this kind of Vices they are directly related to 
the plays of this last class. 



RESPUBLICA 229 

connote the idea of corrupt personages who practise these vices 
to the detriment of the nation. ^ 

The Prologue beseeches the indulgence of his hearers, and 
outlines the play to follow. Then the first act begins with a 
soliloquy by Avarice, the chief Vice, who discloses his plans for 
amassing wealth. He has long been awaiting the chance to 
feather his nest in view of old age,^ and now the chance has 
come. He will introduce himself to the wealthy Dame Respub- 
lica, who wastes and throws away enough to fill his purse. But, 
since he would not be welcome if his name were known, he 
decides to disguise himself and change his name to Policie. 
He hopes no one will blame him for looking out for his own 
interests. One must spend money daily, and then there is always 
the danger of thieves. But at the mention of thieves a sudden 
fear strikes to his heart. " Owte, alas," he wails, "" I feare I left 
my Cofer Open," The audience is suddenly deserted, while 
Avarice rushes out in an agony of doubt and fear. 

Insolence, Oppressyon, and Adulacion come in singing, and 
Adulacion praises the voice of Insolence as equal to that of 
an angel. Insolence is not much moved by this flattery, but 
demands to know " what availeth that to highe dignitiee." 
Oppression roughly breaks in, agreeing that it avails " not a 
strawe," so far as he can see. But Adulacion is not lightly 
to be shaken from his determination to admire. He assures 
Insolence that he is as fit to rule the land as he is to sing a 
song, and here Oppression takes common ground with him. 

1 It is to be noted that in the Satyre of the Thrie Estaites, Part II, these cor- 
rupt personages are represented more directly by type figures. This is really 
the ideal way of presenting this motive, since it dispenses with the necessity 
of making the connection between the vices which are personified and the 
persons who practise the vices. 

^ This, of course, is the regular attitude, not of a personified vice, but of a 
typical avaricious man. The personified vice of avarice has but one consistent 
function — to influence an individual, or a type figure, to the arousing of 
avaricious desires. This inconsistency appears throughout the play. 



230 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Insolence does not object to this prospect of power and afflu- 
ence, but they all agree that their " fownder Avarice " must 
be consulted before any steps are taken. 

While they are conversing Avarice comes back, complaining 
bitterly of thieves, and congratulating himself that he got to 
his coffers in time to save them. He is so intent on his own 
thoughts that the three others have great difficulty in gaining 
his ear ; and when he does notice them at last he flies into a 
rage and accuses them of being the thieves who tried to rob 
him half-an-hour before. But they finally succeed in allaying 
his suspicions. He becomes partially mollified, and consents to 
join them in the struggle for success and wealth, though the 
slightest occasion is still enough to arouse his suspicions again. 
He discloses the fact that Respublica, " the ladie of Estate," is 
in great trouble over the decaying of her fortunes, and would 
welcome anyone who could bring her a prospect of relief. 
Furthermore, he promises to introduce them to her so that 
they can work together and all succeed in getting a share of 
her estate. It is first necessary that they shall all find more 
attractive names ; and Avarice, who has already prepared his 
disguise, suggests Authority as a new name for Insolence, Ref- 
ormation for Oppression, and Honesty for Adulation. Adula- 
tion has great difficulty in getting his new name fixed in his 
mind, but he finally succeeds. Then Avarice turns his own 
gown inside out, " for theise gaping purses maie in no wyse 
be seen," and at last they are ready for the introduction to 
Respublica. 

In the second act Respublica comes in bewailing the muta- 
bility of fortune in the state. She knows not how it is, but good 
government always seems to bring prosperity ; and now her 
own fortunes are ebbing, — ergo, what she needs is good gov- 
ernment. Avarice approaches, so intent again upon the question 
of his money-bags that he does not at first notice the downcast 



RESPUBLICA 231 

Respublica ; but, suddenly catching sight of her, he recollects 
himself with a start, and introduces himself as " Maister Policie." 
Respublica welcomes him eagerly, and implores his aid, which he 
readily grants, promising to bring, in addition, his three friends, 
Authority, Reformation, and Honesty. Avarice calls in the prof- 
fered friends and introduces them, with some serious blunders 
on the part of Adulation, who finds it very difficult to repress 
his real nature. A compact is made, and then Respublica re- 
tires to give her new counsellors an opportunity to consult among 
themselves for the good of her estate. Adulation, who is much 
perturbed by the effort he has just made at self -repression, in- 
sists on having a song "to lighten our hartes." Then they 
retire happily to their new work. 

The third act introduces Respublica rejoicing in her new hopes 
of prosperity. She wonders, however, what Master Policie has 
been doing, since he has not yet made any report of his work. 
Adulation enters and assures her that he and his fellow-workers 
have been toiling night and day to improve her estate. Then, 
somewhat to the confusion of Adulation, they are joined by a 
friend of Respublica's, People, who is an honest and rather 
shrewd fellow, with a great affection for Respublica and a lurk- 
ing suspicion ^of her new counsellors. People tells sorrowfully 
of his poverty and affliction, but protests his love for Respublica, 
and she in turn assures him of her constant affection. Adulation 
breaks in with loud avowals of his own good intentions, but he 
is regarded very coldly by the honest People. Then Respublica 
and People retire to let Adulation consult with his friends, who 
are soon to arrive. Presently Avarice enters, again busied with 
his ever-present reflections on his money-bags. He is soon fol- 
lowed by Oppression, and later by Insolence. The newly-arrived 
workers have been very busy in their absence, and have rich 
fruits to show for their toil in the shape of bishoprics and 
lands. Adulation, whose ambitions have not soared as high as 



232 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

they might have, is strongly censured for having procured only 
" three hundred pound by the yeare and one manior place." 

In Act IV Respublica comes on alone, very ill at ease be- 
cause People is still unhappy and oppressed. Somehow the new 
management is not producing the golden results that it prom- 
ised at first. She is joined by the unhappy People, and then 
by Avarice, who excuses himself for his long absence on the 
plea that he has been immersed in " depe studies " to find a 
way of increasing his patroness's wealth. But People has got 
beyond even the pretence of accepting Avarice's explanations. 
" That lye," he responds, " ere this is flowen as ferre hens as 
Polle steple." Avarice asks, and is granted, permission to bring 
in his brother counsellors. They are assembled, and all combine 
to bear down the arguments of People. Respublica is stupid 
and gullible, as usual, and about the only suggestion she con- 
tributes to the argument is, " Undoubtedly, I fele many thinges 
are amisse." But People argues stoutly against the present 
abuses in the Church, which are falsely called reformations. 
Avarice and his friends maintain that these apparent abuses 
will really work for the good of People in the long run if he 
will only have patience to wait ; and at this argument People is 
mollified and consents to give the reforms a chance. Respublica, 
delighted at the prospect of amity, retires to give the others a 
chance to settle things peaceably among themselves. The 
moment she disappears the Vices turn furiously upon People, 
revile him as a peasant and a lout, and order him home. 
People bows beneath the storm and prepares to get out of the 
way, but he proffers one last request : " One worde erche goe. 
Yele geve volke leave to thinke ? " " No, marie, will we not," 
retorts Oppression, " nor to looke, but winke." 

In the last act Mercy enters with a speech in praise of God, 
and announces that she is sent from God to aid Respublica. 
While she speaks Respublica approaches in deep distress, and 



RESPUBLICA 233 

praying to God for help. Mercy goes up to comfort her, and 
while they are together Avarice enters at another part of the 
stage. Here he is presently joined by Adulation, who announces 
that " there is newe stertt up, a ladye cald Veritee." Avarice is 
much disturbed by the report, and draws Adulation aside to warn 
him that they must be on their guard against Mercy and Truth, 
who are their bitter enemies. While they are occupied in their 
asides Truth joins the two women at the other part of the stage. 
In a few minutes Justice and Peace follow, and now the four 
sisters, Mercy, Truth, Justice, and Peace plan a " blysfull reno- 
vacion " of Respublica's estate. Respublica, whose eyes are at 
last opened to the real state of her affairs, turns to Avarice and 
dismisses him, in spite of his loud protestations of innocence. 
Then she calls People, and he enters and tells her that things 
are looking up with him. 

The women now retire. In a few moments Oppression, 
Insolence, and Adulation come in, and, encountering People, 
begin promptly to load him with abuse. But they receive an 
abrupt check from Avarice, who comes racing in to warn them 
of the plot that is on foot. Before they can get away the four 
sisters come in with Respublica and accuse them. They can 
still lie as readily as ever, but when the cloak of Avarice is 
turned and his money-bags disclosed, their real characters are 
revealed. Then the sisters turn the culprits over to People 
to be guarded. 

Finally Nemesis enters, and, after reassuring Respublica and 
People, confronts the Vices with her knowledge of their crimes. 
They make a last despairing attempt to escape punishment by 
shifting the blame on each other ; but their accuser sternly com- 
mends them to People to be closely guarded until the day for 
their trial. Nemesis again promises Respublica and People to 
restore them to their former state of happiness, and the play 
is ended. 



234 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The characters here are absolutely unequivocal. Avarice, 
Insolence, Oppression, and Adulation represent national vices. 
Misericordia, Veritas, Justicia, and Pax, the Four Daughters of 
God, are virtues representing the power and influence of God 
making themselves felt in the land. Nemesis, though in a spe- 
cial sense Queen Mary, is allegorically an Agent of Retribution. 
Respublica is symbolic of the country, like Ynglond in Kynge 
Johan ; and People, "representing the poor Commontie," is 
the familiar type figure that we have encountered in all these 
political Moralities. 

The interpretation is equally simple and unequivocal : When 
a commonwealth falls under misrule an opportunity is given to 
all the baser national impulses, avarice, oppression, insolence, 
and adulation. The common people are the ones who must bear 
these ills, while the persons higher in authority are enabled to 
gratify their avarice at the common expense. The country is 
reduced to despair. But a just punishment is in store for those 
who thus oppress the land for their own gains. When a good 
ruler succeeds to power he quickly apprehends and punishes 
the oppressors, and brings comfort to the people ; then mercy 
and truth, righteousness and peace, become the mainsprings 
of national feeling. 



CHAPTER IX 
CONTEMPORARY PLAYS WITH MORALITY FEATURES 

We have now to take a brief survey of a few sixteenth-century 
plays which conform in some respects to the requirements of the 
MoraHty, without belonging primarily to that class. The dis- 
cussion in the first chapter of this work has shown the reasons 
upon which this distinction is based, so that very little more than 
a brief outline of each play to be considered now will suffice to 
show the necessity for discarding it. The three essentials of the 
Morality, to repeat from my definition of Chapter I, are didactic 
purpose, the presentation of personified abstractions and univer- 
salized types as dramatis personae, and allegorical structure. 

The Preaty Interlude Called Nice Wanton ^ has been dis- 
cussed in part in Chapter I. It presents the same motive 
which enters into the construction of Like Will to Like ^ ; that 
is, the contrast of two lives, or two sets of lives, with poetic 
justice meted out at the end of the play. The outline, in brief, 
is this : 

After the Messenger, or Prologue, outlines the play, Bar- 
nabas comes in and discusses the distribution of virtue among 
the different members of his family. It is plain to the youthful 
mind of Barnabas that he himself has been generously treated 
in this respect, while his brother and sister, Ismael and Dalila, 
have been woefully stinted. Apparently the mother, also, is not 

^ Manly, Vol. I. Fleay, p. 32, states that the play was acted at court by the 
Paul's choir boys on August 7, 1559. He thinks the author may have been 
Thomas Ingeland. 

2 See note 2, p. 180, above. 

23s 



236 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

so good as she might be, for she settles the family quarrels by 
the simple expedient of beating Barnabas and petting her " ten- 
der tidlynges," Ismael and Dalila. The brother and sister appear, 
and fully justify Barnabas's account of them by replying with 
abuse and ridicule when he urges them to go to school with him. 
Barnabas departs alone for school, and Ismael and Dalila throw 
away their books and decide to go in for a life of pleasure. 

In the next scene a neighbor, Eulalia, comes in to warn 
Xantippe that two of her children, Ismael and Dalila, are laying 
themselves open to grievous censure. She urges the mother to 
" chastyce them for it," but Xantippe receives the advice in the 
usual spirit of ingratitude evinced by mothers on such occasions. 
Thereupon Eulalia departs, and shortly after Xantippe leaves 
the stage clear for the presentation of Iniquitie, Ismael, and Dalila 
in the well-known dice-throwing scene. Dalila joins forces with 
Iniquitie, and they make short work of the brother's purse. 
Ismael goes out to replenish his purse by robbing some one, 
and Iniquitie and Dalila break into a violent quarrel because 
he accuses her of keeping back part of the common winnings. 
She leaves in a rage ; and Iniquitie, after commenting on the 
wickedness of the brother and sister, departs also. 

After "a long interval" Dalila reappears, ragged and dis- 
figured by disease. Presently Barnabas joins her. At first he 
fails to recognize his sister in the tattered creature before him ; 
but when she discloses her name he remarks characteristically 
that the outcome is just what might have been expected. She 
begs him to intercede for Ismael, who is to be tried for his life ; 
and Barnabas, promising to do what he can for them both, leads 
his sister away to feed and clothe her. 

Then follows the scene in which the unfortunate Ismael is 
tried, before Daniel the judge, for "felony, burglary, and murdre." 
Iniquitie is present, and tries unavailingly to purchase the pris- 
oner's freedom by bribing the judge. Ismael is condemned to 



THE NICE WANTON 237 

be hanged, but before being led away he accuses Iniquitie of 
leading him into the life of sin. Then Daniel orders that In- 
iquitie be imprisoned also, and the latter is led out by a halter, 
defying his captors to injure him. 

In the final scene Worldly Shame appears, rejoicing in the 
late turn of events. Dalila is dead of her disease, and Ismael 
is hanging in chains. Xantippe comes in and, hearing his ac- 
count, attempts to kill herself. But Barnabas returns just in 
time to save her. He comforts her by the assurance that Dalila 
repented before her death, and adds that he has heard the same 
of Ismael. Xantippe retires in a more resigned frame of mind ; 
and Barnabas, after exhausting the significance of his family's 
career, ends the play with prayers for the Queen. 

The point of contact between this play and the Morality is 
the element of moral didacticism, — the aim to teach a lesson 
for the guidance of life. But even this is a good deal obscured 
by the fact that The Nice Wanton deals with individual human 
beings. The Prologue reminds his hearers that "He that spareth 
the rod, the chyld doth hate," and indicates that the purpose of 
the play is to show that 

If chyldren be noseled in idlenes and yll 
And brought up therin, it is hard to restrayne 
And draw them from naturall wont euyll, 
As here in thys interlude ye shall se playne. 

But, since Barnabas, Ismael, and Dalila have all been brought 
up by the same mother, they should all have gone astray, unless 
we are to suppose that Xantippe unintentionally drove Barnabas 
into the paths of virtue by employing the rod on his person 
because she disliked him. Even in the latter case the play 
would be contradicting the moral, "He that spareth the rod, 
the chyld doth hate." On the whole, it seems necessary to 
conclude that the author believed strongly in the efficacy of the 
rod irrespective of the motives behind the rod. But enough has 



238 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

been said to show that the working out of the lesson has been 
confused by the employment of individual persons, who may turn 
out good or bad irrespective of parentage or training. 

The play contains no type figures. There are two personified 
abstractions, Iniquitie and Worldly Shame. The latter appears 
only once, and here he is not employed in allegorical action, 
but merely comments on events which have taken place. In- 
iquitie is a more important figure. He is prominent in the chief 
scene of the play, — the dice-throwing scene. But here the action 
is not allegorical. Iniquitie is undoubtedly intended as the per- 
sonification of vice, but as far as the action is concerned he 
might just as well be another sinner like Ismael or Dalila. He 
does not induce them to a life of sin (the allegorical way of 
depicting vice as entering the heart) but merely joins them, at 
one stage of their career, in the capacity of boon companion. 
Evidently he is given his far-reaching abstract name in order 
that the dice-throwing scene may be more strongly suggestive 
of the wickedness of Ismael and Dalila than if they were shown 
simply with a fellow-sinner. 

The Nice Wanton thus coincides with the Moralities in that 
its aim (though vaguely realized) is to teach a direct lesson for 
the guidance of life. It does not employ the sort of characters 
proper to a Morality, and it is not allegorical in structure. 

The Disobedient Child'^ has also been shortly discussed in 
Chapter I. The author here announces the same purpose that 
we find animating the play of The Nice Wantoji, i.e., to show 
the evil results of a failure to employ the all-sufficient rod of 
correction upon children. The working out of this purpose in 

1 By Thomas Ingelend. Fleay, History of the Stage, p. 32, states that the 
play was produced at court, by Leicester's servants, Christmas, 1560-1561. 
But in his Biographical Chronicle, I, 307, he says it was " a revised interlude 
of the time of Edward VI" and "was probably acted at Court, 6th March 
1 560-1. ... If so, it was acted by the Paul's boys. . . . There is no evi- 
dence that interludes of the morality species were ever acted at Court by men 
players." It is edited in Dodsley, Vol. II. 



THE DISOBEDIENT CHILD 239 

The Disobedient Child is less convincing even than in The Nice 
Wanton. The Rich Man (whom the action shows to be some 
particular man, who happens to be rich, and whose name is 
withheld for no particular reason) takes it into his head that 
marrying is the unpardonable sin. His son commits this sin, 
and is disowned forever by his righteously indignant father, 
who warns his compeers, the fathers and rich men of the 
audience, that 

we parents must have a regard 
Our children in time for to subdue, 
Or else we shall have them ever untoward, 
Yea, spiteful, disdainful, naught, and untrue. 
And let us them thrust alway to the school. 
Whereby at their books they may be kept under ; 
And so we shall shortly their courage cool. 
And bring them to honesty, virtue, and nurture.'^ 

The avowed purpose of the play, then, is to show the danger 
of neglecting discipline when the child is young ; but the lesson 
which the action seems to enforce is : if a young man insists on 
being married he must pay the bitter penalty of a ruined life, 
without hope of forgiveness. 

The outline, in brief, is this : The son complains to his father 
of the severity of school life. The father urges him to keep on, 
but he refuses and finally discloses the fact that he is yearning 
for a wife. At this the father flies into a rage. '" Why," he 

exclaims, foolish idiot, thou goest about a wife, 

Which is a burthen and yoke all thy life. 

But the son is not to be shaken from his purpose, and the father 
disowns him. 

In the next scene the two cooks, male and female, come in 
to prepare for the feast. They give the latest information about 
the approaching nuptials, and then retire as the young man comes 
in with his prospective bride. After some love-making on the 

1 P. 280. 



240 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

part of the enamored pair, the priest comes in and marries them. 
When the wedding-party retires new hght is thrown on the mar- 
riage question by a long denunciatory soliloquy on the part of the 
father, who quotes from Hipponax and Ovid to support his views. 

The sad fulfillment of these prophetic utterances is seen pres- 
ently, when the wife comes in beating her husband and order- 
ing him to work. The wretched husband goes to work, but 
the beating continues. When the possibilities of corporal pun- 
ishment are exhausted and the husband lies prostrate on the 
ground with a broken head, the gentle wife retires, followed at 
some distance by her timorous and remorseful mate. Then the 
Devil comes on in high spirits to announce the success of his 
earthly schemes, which culminate in marriage. Finally the son 
repairs to his father for help. He is sincerely repentant, but the 
evil deed has been accomplished, and happiness is irretrievable. 
The father sends him back to his wife, to drag out his days in 
the misery which he has brought upon himself. 

The only aspect of this play which brings it into relation with 
the Moralities is its avowed purpose of teaching a lesson. The 
action is not allegorical, and the characters are merely individ- 
uals with their names withheld, as the Prologue's explanation 

will show : 

In the city of London there was a rich man, 

Who, loving his son most tenderly,^ etc. 

The Disobedient Child, then, should be classified merely as a 
tendenz play. 

The Interlude of the Virtiiotis and Godly Queen Hester'^ is 
a biblical play with a few allegorical figures introduced in an 
unimportant scene. The plot runs as follows : 

1 P. 267. 

2 Edited in Anonymous Plays, 2nd Series, by John Farmer. The play was 
first printed in 1561. Fleay, p. 66, states that it was "beyond doubt a play 
acted by the Chapel children publicly by way of retaliation for their inhibition 
at Court in 1 560." 



INTERLUDE OF QUEEN HESTER 241 

King Assverus listens to a discussion among his three gentle- 
men as to what should be the object of greatest honor. One 
of these gentlemen is Aman, who proves himself so skillful in 
argument that he is appointed the King's chief counsellor. 
Presently Assverus decides to be married, and he sends Aman 
to gather the wisest and most beautiful maidens of the king- 
dom, in order that the best possible selection may be made. 
Mardocheus, the Jew, hears of the King's intention, and brings 
forward his niece as a candidate for the royal favor. When the 
maidens, then, are assembled before the King, Hester is among 
them ; and her wit and beauty so captivate Assverus that he 
chooses her for his queen. 

Then comes the scene which connects this play with the 
Morality group. Pride enters, poorly clad. He explains that 
hfe has had to lay aside his fine clothes because Aman will not 
allow any man but himself to go well dressed, and wishes to 
have a monopoly of pride.^ Adulation joins him, and complains 
in like manner that Aman will permit no one but himself to 
deal in adulation, or flattery. Finally, they are reinforced by 
Ambition, who adds his complaint in the same key. As a last 
resort in their extremity, the three Vices decide to resign every- 
thing to Aman, "to the intent," as Ambition expresses it, "that 
Sathan may love him well." Having surrendered their respec- 
tive personalities to their master exponent, these Vices drop 
out of sight for the rest of the action. 

In the next scene Hardydardy approaches Aman, and by the 
charm of his witty conversation persuades the latter to engage 
him as servant. In the course of their conversation Hardydardy 
refers to the bequest of Pride, Adulation, and Ambition ; but 
Aman understands this only as a merry jest on the part of his 
entertaining follower. 

^ The chief characteristic of the allegorical figure Pride is, here and else- 
where, love of finery. 



242 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

The play proceeds with the scriptural story of Aman's attempt 
to have all the Jews killed, the frustration of this plan by Hester, 
and the condemnation of Aman. Hardydardy is present at the 
banquet where Aman's villainy is exposed. He exults in the 
downfall of his master, and comments to Assverus on the jus- 
tice by which Aman is to be hanged on the gallows that he 
himself has prepared for Mardocheus. 

This brief outline is sufficient to show how slight is the 
Morality element in the play. The aim is to present a dramatic 
rendering of a well-known biblical narrative, not to teach a les- 
son for the guidance of life. The structure is not allegorical, 
and the characters proper to an allegorical action that do appear 
are kept so much in the background that they might be omitted 
without essentially affecting the play. 

The method of developing Aman into the master spirit of 
pride, adulation, and ambition is quite unique. Apparently the 
author did not wish to encumber the main action of his play 
with allegorical machinery, and consequently introduced the 
three Vices, Pride, Adulation, and Ambition, in their separate 
scene, as an easy way of showing the wickedness of Aman and 
the extent to which his evil desires had carried him. The regu- 
lar allegorical way of depicting this would be to have the three 
Vices apply to him for service, be admitted, and then proceed 
to guide his life by their counsels. But the opposite way is 
taken : Aman does so much of the work usually performed by 
the Vices that the Vices themselves are thrown out of employ- 
ment ; and all they can do in revenge is to give him so much 
of their natures that he will inevitably overreach himself. 

Hardydardy is a colorless sort of figure. He is, of course, 
the technical representative of the chief Vice of the Morality, but 
here he plays only the part of fool, or jester. His entry into 
the service of Aman was probably understood, in a dim way, as 
being symbolic of the complete occupation of Aman's heart by 



JO HAN THE EVANGELIST 243 

"all sins generally," but this is not expressed in the play. It is 
merely suggested by Hardydardy's general air of maliciousness, 
and his unfeigned joy when Aman is brought to a sudden end 
in the midst of his crime. 

The short interlude oijohan the Evangelist^ mwst be noticed 
in passing, as it is carried on partly by the sort of characters 
proper to a Morality. The action begins with a discussion be- 
tween a godly person named Irisdision and a pleasure-loving 
person named Eugenio. Irisdision gives an allegorical descrip- 
tion of two paths — one leading to good and the other to evil 
— by which a man may travel. Eugenio is affected, but, waiv- 
ing the question of allegorical paths, he decides to go out and 
have his fun while he may. The pair retire in different direc- 
tions, and Johan the Evangelist appropriates the empty stage. 
He pompously introduces the audience to himself, preaches a 
short sermon, and retires with the promise that he "wyll hastely 
agayne be here." Then Actio comes in, complaining that some- 
one has wakened him before his time by throwing water upon 
him. Eugenio returns, and is greeted by Actio as an old friend. 
Some witticisms are exchanged, and then Eugenio tells of a 
sermon he heard by a good man (apparently Johan), who spoke 
of everlasting life and happiness. The two friends decide to 
walk abroad and partake of such enjoyments as occasion may 
offer, but Eugenio is determined that they shall return " by 
pryme " to hear the next sermon from Johan. 

The next to appear is Evell Counsayle, who is presently 
joined by Idelnesse. Evell Counsayle is anxious to find a 
master, and is prepared to perform any service of a wicked 
nature that may be demanded of him. He learns that the hobby 

1 In the Malone Society Reprints. The editor (p. vi) suggests the possi- 
bility of a date before 1557 for the play. It was discovered in quarto form, in 
1906, and was purchased by the British Museum. The quarto is undated, but 
the catalogue of the British Museum assigns the edition to about 1565 on 
grounds of typography. 



244 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

of Idelnesse is to corrupt other men's wives ; so he announces 
that he is pecuharly fitted to assist an employer in such work. 
Then the two go about their business, hastened on their way 
by an apprehension that they may be disturbed by the sermon- 
izer " that layde fyrst In principio togyther." Their places are 
taken by Actio and Eugenio, who return discussing their recent 
adventures. Presently they see Johan approaching, and pause 
to hear the forthcoming " sermonysacyon." Johan opens his 
discourse with the parable of the Pharisee and the publican, 
and then proceeds with a stern denunciation of sin. The two 
listeners are converted on the spot, and Johan concludes the 
play with admonitions to his recruits. 

It is hardly necessary to comment on the formlessness of the 
play. It is neither Morality nor biblical tale, and if anyone feels 
impelled to classify it he had better content himself with calling 
it an " Interlude," which would indicate that it is probably a play. 
The characters that concern us here are Evell Counsayle and 
Idlenesse. Their conversation makes it almost certain that Idle- 
nesse is a type figure representing the idle man, and that Evell 
Counsayle is the abstract personification of the tendencies towards 
mischief such as Satan still finds for idle hands to do. The rest 
of the characters are individuals. As for the purpose of the play, 
it is strongly moral in tone ; but there is not the slightest attempt 
(or, if there is, it cannot be detected) to teach one connected 
lesson for the guidance of life. 

In Kyng Daryus'^ the Morality features are much more 
evident. The play is about equally divided between Morality 
and Bible History, and the two elements are completely sepa- 
rated, the only semblance of contact being in one speech at the 
end of the action. The outline, in brief, is as follows : 

1 Edited by Alois Brandl in Quellen des weltlichen Dramas in England 
vor Shakespeare. The play was registered October, 1565. Fleay, p. 59, states: 
" This was probably an old interlude, revived possibly at Christmas 1563-4." 



KYNG DARYUS 245 

After the Prolocutor outlines the action to follow, Iniquytie, 
the chief Vice, enters looking for some friends to converse with. 
No one joins him, and he works himself up into a condition of 
extreme irritability, so that when the virtuous Charyte appears 
he is made the target for a fusillade of abusive language. 
Charyte protects himself behind the ever-present bulwark of 
scriptural quotation, but finally becomes disgusted with his op- 
ponent's language and leaves. Then appear Importunyte and 
Parcyalytie, two minor Vices. The irascible Iniquytie is suspi- 
cious of them at first, but relents when he learns their names, 
and receives them as his followers. 

Their conference is interrupted by Equytie, and a furious 
altercation follows. The three Vices use all the threats and 
abusive language at their command, and are almost driven to 
despair when Equytie stoutly holds his ground, since they 
realize that their power will be lost if they cannot drive him 
out. Equytie makes several long speeches to them with great 
calmness and presence of mind, and expounds the Scriptures 
freely. At last he kneels down and prays, then goes out lei- 
surely with a last disdainful speech to his excited opponents. 
The three Vices sing a song and retire from the stage. 

Agreable and Preparatus, the two servants of King Daryus, 
enter, and are soon followed by the King with his counsellors 
Perplexitie and Curyosytie. Daryus sends the two servants to 
bid a company to his feast. Presently Aethopia, Percia, Juda, 
and Media come in, partake gratefully of the feast, and retire. 
Then the King and his counsellors also depart. 

Iniquytie returns, trolling a merry song, and is at once joined 
by his two followers. They settle down to a discussion of their 
ancestry, and Iniquj^ie informs them that the Pope is his father. 
But this pleasant interchange of family histories is interrupted 
by Equytie, who comes prepared to renew the recent argument. 
In the ensuing quarrel Iniquytie, as his followers think, shows 



246 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

too much disposition to reason with Equytie, and they leave in 
disgust. Iniquytie is placed at a decided disadvantage when his 
opponent is reinforced by Constancy and Charytie. A long and 
bitter exchange of insults follows, with occasional attempts on 
the part of the Virtues to convert the incorrigible Iniqu)rtie. 
Finally, according to the stage direction, " somebody must cast 
fyre to Iniquytie," who rushes out shrieking, 

Nay, I go to the devil, I fere. 

The Virtues give thanks to God, sing a song of triumph over 
the destruction of Iniquytie, and retire. 

King Daryus comes in and despatches his two servants for 
his counsellors. When the counsellors appear he explains to 
them that he has overheard an argument among his three 
chamber-servants, and has collected pieces of paper on which 
they have written down certain mysterious statements. The 
three servants, Stipator primus, Stipator secundus, and Zoro- 
babell, are summoned and made to explain their written state- 
ments. Stipator primus argues for the strength of wine, Stipator 
secundus for the strength of the king, and Zorobabell for the 
strength of women. Zorobabell is triumphant, and is taken into 
the King's favor. Then, before they leave the stage, he petitions 
for the rebuilding of Jerusalem. 

Constancy comes forward with a speech maintaining that 
Zorobabell was victorious through him, while the other two 
servants were flatterers. Equytie and Charytie join him, and 
the three conclude the play with prayers for Queen Elizabeth 
and her counsellors. 

The only point of contact, then, between the Morality and the 
biblical parts of the play is the speech of Constancy referring 
to his services to Zorobabell. There is an indirect relation, how- 
ever, in the fact that the Morality scenes are symbolic of the 
strife going on at the court between right and wrong, equity 



HORESTES 247 

and iniquity, culminating in the victory of Zorobabell. The 
Morahty element, also, is very interesting in itself. It could be 
lifted bodily out of the play in which it is now but a secondary 
element, and placed alone as a complete Morality on the theme, 
Conflict between Virtues and Vices for Supremacy. As there 
is no mention of any prize to be striven for, it would be an 
example of Class I, a, in its purity. 

Horestes} an historical play by John Pickering, is of interest 
in this discussion mainly on account of the presence of a Vice 
(denominated almost entirely throughout the play as "the Vyce ") 
who poses at various times as Pacience, Courrage, and Revenge. 
Judging from his actions in the play, and by the fact that he 
is once introduced, in a long speech, as Revenge, it seems 
probable that he was intended to personify the spirit of re- 
venge. A few other personified abstractions also appear, in 
unimportant roles. 

The play begins with a long conversation in which the Vice 
disguises himself under the name Pacience. He encounters two 
rustics, Hodge and Rusticus, and by judiciously playing them 
off against each other involves them at last in a game of fisti- 
cuffs. While they are thus busily engaged he steals in quietly, 
and impartially bestows a few stinging buffets. Then he takes to 
his heels and leaves the amazed rustics to patch up the quarrel 
at their own convenience. 

In the next scene Horestes comes on, lamenting the murder 
of his father and the shameful conduct of his mother, Clytem- 
nestra, who has brought about the death of her husband, and 
is now with her guilty lover and accomplice, Egistus. He is 
undecided as to whether he should avenge his father's death. 
But at this point the Vice approaches, announcing himself as 

1 Edited by Brandl in Quellen des weltlichen Dramas, etc. The play was 
published in 1 567 by William Griffith. There is no entry of it in the Stationers' 
Register. 



248 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Courrage, the messenger of the gods, and says that the gods 
have decreed that Horestes shall make war on his mother and 
her accomplices. This advice is seconded by King Idumeus, 
who first gets the opinion of his servant Councell. Before 
Horestes departs on this mission, Dame Nature attempts to 
dissuade him from this cruel action against his mother, but in 
vain. He wages war against Clytemnestra and Egistus and 
slays them both, backed up by the counsels of the Vice, who 
now appears frankly as Revenge. 

Menelaus, the brother of the slain Cl)^emnestra, now proceeds 
against Horestes ; but, after a conference, he sees that the latter 
has had good reasons for avenging his dead father, whereupon he 
forgives him and bestows on him the hand of his daughter Her- 
mione. They retire, and Revenge appears in a downcast mood, 
and equipped for a journey, since his influence in the country 
has come to an end. He bestows characteristic advice upon the 
audience and takes his leave. 

Finally, Horestes comes in with his bride Hermione. Truth 
and Dewtey place a crown on his head, and conclude the play 
with speeches on their usefulness in the kingdom. 

Horestes would have nothing in common with the Moralities 
except for the fact that a few of its characters are personified 
abstractions. These characters are unimportant here. Even 
the Vice, Revenge, could easily be spared. He is not respon- 
sible for any of the important actions of the play, but simply 
appears to influence persons who are already in the mood 
for revenge. 

The " tragicall history" of Cambyses ^ is frequently mentioned 
in connection with the Moralities, but it has so little in common 
with them that it will not be necessary to go into an outline of 

1 The play was written by Thomas Preston, Fellow of King's College, and 
afterwards Master of Trinity Hall, in Cambridge. It was licensed to John Allde 
in 1569-70, but was written some years earlier. The text used is that in 
Dodsley, Vol. IV. 



CAMBYSES 249 

the plot. Ambidexter is the Vice, technically speaking. As a 
matter of fact he is simply a double-faced rascal who provides 
most of what amusement there is in a very sanguinary play, and 
performs one important act of maliciousness. He goes to young 
Smirdis, brother of the murderous King Cambyses, and pro- 
poses to him a plan for supplanting his brother in the popular 
favor. Then he proceeds to Cambyses and informs him that 
Smirdis is working to overthrow him in order that he himself 
may enjoy the kingdom. The obvious result follows. Cambyses 
goes out to see to the death of Smirdis. Ambidexter is in high 
glee at this outcome, and confides to the audience : 

Thereby you may perceive I use to play with each hand.* 

Several personifications appear for brief intervals throughout 
the play. They are, however, not only unessential, but unim- 
portant to the last degree. Shame appears once in a short in- 
terval in the action to address the audience in deprecation of 
the wickedness of Cambyses. Commons' Cry makes a brief plaint 
to the King on the miseries of the people, then Commons' 
Complaint continues the strain, backed up by Proof and Trial. 
Execution, Cruelty, and Murder are employed by the king to 
enforce his frequent demands on the lives of his relatives and 
friends. Attendance and Diligence are simply a pair of follow- 
ers who appear with young Smirdis during the brief period 
between the arousing of his ambition and his death. Prepara- 
tion is a figure, common to many plays of the period, whose 
duty it is to prepare feasts. 

Not one of these allegorical figures has any important place 
in the action. They could all be supplanted by such characters 
as First Lord, Second Lord, First Murderer, Second Murderer, 
and so on. Cambyses is, then, a "tragicall history," displaying 
a few minor characters borrowed from allegory. 

1 P. 215. 



250 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Appiiis and Virginia'^ is announced on the title-page as a 
"Tragicall Comedie," but perhaps it would seem less paradoxi- 
cal, from the point of view of modern expression, to speak of 
it as a " tragicall history," like Cambyses, with some allegorical 
figures introduced. It is, from our point of view, a much more 
important play than Cambyses. In the latter there was no attempt 
to show that the play was produced to teach a single lesson for 
the guidance of life ; but in Appitts atid Virginia, as I have 
shown before,^ there is such an attempt. Some of the allegori- 
cal figures here, also, are of more importance in the plot than 
are any of those in Cambyses, as the following outline will show. 

The Prologue makes a speech in praise of chastity. Then 
Virginius comes in with his wife. Mater, and his daughter, Vir- 
ginia. They converse on the advantages of domestic happiness 
and affection, then solemnly depart. Haphazard, the Vice, enters 
with a long and somewhat incoherent speech, showing, in a 
general way, that he is in the world for no good purpose. He 
soon has a pair of tangible objects for his merry jests. Man- 
sipulus and Mansipula, two servants, join him, and presently he 
takes occasion to bestow a sound drubbing upon the person of 
the former. Subservus comes, they all sing together, and then 
retire amicably. 

The serious part of the play begins now with a soliloquy from 
Judge Appius on his madness for Virginia. Haphazard joins 
him with a plan by which he may obtain the object of his desire. 
Conscience, with a burning candle, and Justice, with a sword, 
come to warn him, but he decides to accept the advice of 

1 The title on the old edition runs as follows : " A new Tragicall Comedie 
of Apius and Virginia. Wherein is lively expressed a rare example of the 
virtue of Chastitie by Virginias Constancy in wishing rather to be slaine at her 
owne Fathers handes, then to be dishonored of the wicked Judge Apius. 
By R. B. Imprinted at London by William How for Richard Ihones. 1575." 
The text used here is that in Dodsley, Vol. IV. 

2 See p. 13 of this work. 



APPIUS AND VIRGINIA 251 

Haphazard. He retires, full of his new purpose, and Conscience 
and Justice appear alone for a few minutes to comment sorrow- 
fully upon the probable outcome of events. 

Appius, following the advice of Haphazard, now instructs his 
friend Claudius to accuse Virginius of stealing a thrall of his, 
a young child {i.e., Virginia), and bringing her up as his own 
daughter. Haphazard, who is present, urges them on, and goes 
out with Claudius to see that the base scheme is carried through. 
Conscience, hidden behind a curtain, makes a last faint appeal 
to Appius, but is not heeded. 

After another comic scene with Haphazard and the servants, 
Virginius comes in wondering why Appius has neglected him 
of late. His curiosity is soon appeased when Appius and Clau- 
dius come in with their trumped-up accusation. They give him 
stern orders to deliver up Virginia to her rightful master, then 
leave him to mourn the sudden calamity to his house. Virginia 
enters and learns the sad news. She is determined, however, 
to retain her chastity, and requests her father to take her life 
at once. He complies, somewhat unnecessarily cutting off her 
head on the stage. Then he prepares to end his grief by suicide ; 
but Comfort arrives on the scene and persuades him instead to 
proceed with his daughter's head to Appius, and get comfort in 
seeing the bad end in store for the tyrant. 

In the next scene Appius comes in accompanied by Hap- 
hazard, who amuses his master by talking nonsense, which 
seems, however, to have a sinister suggestion of impending 
disaster. They are suddenly joined by Virginius, who bears 
the head of his daughter. He denounces the tyrant sternly, 
and Justice and Reward follow close on his heels to avenge 
him. Justice approaches Appius with the warning, " Thy reward 
is ready here, by Justice now allotted," and Reward proclaims : 

Thy just reward is deadly death ; wherefore come, wend away : 

To death I straight will do thy corpse : then lust shall have his prey. 



252 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

Appius is handed over to Virginius, who takes him to prison 
and returns in time to become the custodian also of Haphazard, 
who has been sentenced in the meantime by Justice and Reward. 
Finally, Fame enters with Doctrina and Memory, who bear a 
tomb. Memory writes on the tomb ; and Fame, Justice, and 
Reward all proclaim that they will continue to treat virgins and 
their persecutors according to their deserts. 

It is evident that Appius and Virginia has much more in 
common with the Moralities than have most of the plays we 
have considered in this chapter. Many of its characters are 
personified abstractions, and the author takes pains to insist that 
he is teaching one particular lesson for the guidance of life. 
Haphazard, who may be taken for the representative of *" all 
sins generally," originates the scheme by which Appius is to 
corrupt Virginia, and in the end the tyrant is punished, and the 
Vice overthrown, by the abstractions Justice and Reward. But 
a closer study of the play shows that this allegorical element is 
merely grafted on to give a superficial explanation of actions 
that really result from the characteristics of the different human 
beings taking part, and that are sufficiently motivated without 
the introduction of these abstract figures. The allegorical struc- 
ture is lacking, and again the conclusion is indicated that one 
consistent lesson for the guidance of life cannot be made the 
sole point in any other dramatic structure. The author proclaims 
that his play teaches virgins to value honor more than life, but 
the play does not teach this any more than it does any one of 
half-a-dozen other lessons. Human beings with individual char- 
acteristics cannot, except by the most unusual kind of accident, 
lend themselves, in action, to the illustration of one unequivocal 
lesson for the edification of their fellow-sinners. 

Finally, we have one play, written late in the period, which 
exhibits the allegorical structure and allegorical figures, but which 
falls short of being a Morality because there is no attempt to 



THREE LORDS AND THREE LADIES 253 

teach a single connected lesson for the guidance of life. This is 
The Three Lords and Three Ladies of London} It is a sequel to 
The Three Ladies of London, and has already come in for some 
slight discussion in the treatment of the latter play ; ^ but it is still 
necessary to present an outline of the somewhat involved action. 

The three lords of London, Policy, Pomp, and Pleasure, 
come to sue for the hands of Lucre, Conscience, and Love, who 
are in prison.^ They argue over the coming distribution of the 
ladies, each exhibiting great anxiety that Lucre may be the one 
to fall to his share. They apply to Judge Nemo for their brides, 
and he sends Sorrow to bring them from prison. After a scene 
in which Fraud, Dissimulation, Simony, Usury, and Simplicity 
foregather and recount their adventures since their last meeting. 
Sorrow leads in the three ladies and places them on three stones 
that have been set in place for them. The first stone is marked 
" Remorse," the second " Charity," and the third " Care," 
Fraud, Dissimulation, Simony, and Usury, the former retainers 
of Lucre, now apply for a renewal of her favor, but she rejects 
them all, and they make a hasty exit as Judge Nemo reappears 
with the three lords of London. Falsehood and Double-Dealing 
enter at about the same time, and address themselves to Love, 
but Nemo steps forward and drives them out. Honest Industry, 
Pure Zeal, and Sincerity now take the three ladies in charge, 
and lead them out to change their prison rags for seemly apparel. 

After a comic scene in which Fraud, disguised as a French- 
man, persuades Simplicity to invest ten shillings with him in 
return for some jewelry which he claims to be worth ten pounds. 
Nemo enters with tHe three lords, who are still wrangling for 
the possession of Lucre. Determined to marry off all three of 
his prot6g6es. Nemo resorts to a bit of pious fraud. He goes 

1 Edited in Dodsley, Vol. VI. The play was printed in 1592, but was prob- 
ably written a couple of years eariier. 

* See p. 51, above. ^ See conclusion of TTie Three Ladies of London. 



254 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

out and leads in Conscience clothed in white, proclaiming that 
she is Lucre. The lords admire her beauty-, and Pleasure, in 
particular, falls so violently in love that he remains constant 
even after the deception is uncovered. A sudden interruption 
comes at this point. Diligence comes running in to warn them 
that a Spanish host has come to conquer the land, aiming their 
hostilities chiefly at the three lords of London, and with intent 
to carry off the three ladies into bondage. The three lords retire 
to prepare for the combat. 

While the lords, behind the scenes, are girding on their 
armor. Usury appears with the luckless Simplicity, and threat- 
ens to imprison him for attempting to sell his (Usury's) jewelry. 
Fraud comes in and gets Simplicity off with only the loss of the 
jewelry, which is forfeited. Fraud, Dissimulation, and Simony 
now decide to go over to the invading army, and urge Usury to 
join them ; but Usury has misgivings about proving traitor to 
his own country. Simony argues : " 'T is not our native country, 
thou knowest. I, Simony, am a Roman : Dissimulation, a mon- 
grel — half an Italian, half a Dutchman : Fraud so, too — half 
French and half Scottish ; and thy parents were both Jews, 
though thou wert born in London, and here, Usury, thou art 
cried out against by the preachers. Join with us, man, to better 
thy state, for in Spain preaching toucheth us not." But Usury 
has made up his mind that he is better off in London than 
anywhere else, and he is not to be moved from this position. 

The three lords of London now appear, dressed for war and 
accompanied by their pages ; and, advancing from the opposite 
side of the stage, come the three lords of Spain : Pride, with 
his page Shame ; Ambition, with his page Treachery ; and 
Tyranny, with his page Terror. Fealty, the English herald, ad- 
vances to parley with the Spanish herald Shealty.^ Then there 

1 Policy explains that shealty is an Irish word signifying " liberty," but that 
it should mean " remissness," or " looseness." 



THREE LORDS AND THREE LADIES 255 

are two or three symbolic encounters, in which the London 
lords, with much patriotic comment, beat down the shields and 
the lance-points of the Spanish lords. The latter can offer only 
railing and abuse in return for their symbolic drubbing, and in 
the end they are put to flight. 

Judge Nemo now leads in his trio of London ladies, who 
advance to greet their victorious lords. Lucre makes up to 
Pomp, Love to Policy, and Conscience to Pleasure. A triple 
wedding is decided upon, after which the ladies retire. Then 
the lords are applied to by Fraud, Dissimulation, and Usury, 
who are still patiently seeking service. But Policy takes Usury 
and puts a mark on him — a little "x" in the middle of a 
great " C." Then the three rascals are driven out. 

Nemo, still acting the part of gentleman usher, brings in 
Desire, Delight, and Devotion, the three lords of Lincoln, who 
hope to prove attractive in the eyes of the three ladies of Lon- 
don. But their suit is not to be granted. Nemo decides that the 
London ladies must not be separated from the London lords, 
and, in rather doubtful compensation, he presents the lords of 
Lincoln with the three stones marked " Care," " Remorse," and 
" Charity." 

In the final scene the triple wedding is celebrated with great 
ceremony. In the crowd of onlookers is Simplicity, who sud- 
denly espies his enemy Fraud in disguise. He raises a great 
hue and cry, and the two are brought before Pleasure, who 
ordains that Fraud shall be bound, and that Simplicity, for his 
revenge, shall be allowed to thrust at him with a torch. But 
when the preparations are made Simplicity starts off in the 
wrong direction with his torch, and Fraud slips away in the 
crowd. So, in merry fashion, the play is ended. 

This involved allegorical structure is employed, not to bring 
out, step by step, a lesson useful for its application to life, but 
mainly to show the superiority of England over other countries, 



256 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

and of London over other parts of England. It has the outward 
form, but not the animating spirit, of the MoraHty. The charac- 
ters, while they are individually proper to the Morality, are 
combined, not with a view to subordinating them to one central 
action with a moral import, but for the purpose of presenting a 
series of scenes which would express the complacent mood of 
the London audience. 

In all of the plays considered in this chapter we have found 
elements common to the Moralities, and even the brief discus- 
sions that have been accorded these plays will be sufficient to 
show that the experiment of combining Morality elements with 
Comedy, History, and Tragedy was not a success. It would be 
possible to include here a few other plays from the second half 
of the sixteenth century, and also a few artificial revivals from 
the seventeenth century ; but we have now considered all the 
sixteenth-century plays that could by any chance be mistaken 
for Moralities, and to consider examples from the seventeenth 
century would be little more pertinent to our discussion than to 
consider Everywoman and other so-called Moralities of a recent 
date. The Morality as a serious type of drama withdrew gradu- 
ally from the stage as the sixteenth century proceeded toward 
its glorious closing decade, and by 1600 its place on the boards 
was completely occupied, not by a lineal descendant, but by a 
youthful and vigorous usurper, the drama of real life. 



CHAPTER X 

THE MORALITIES CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO 
THEIR ORIGINAL AUDIENCE 

It is so frequently asserted of the Moralities that they were 
dull, dreary, and lifeless, that these adjectives have become the 
stock epithets of the literary historian when he turns aside for a 
momentary inspection of these unfortunate plays. Undoubtedly 
this ill report is due in no small degree to the unhappy taste 
displayed by the Morality in its selection of a name. While we 
may find ourselves approving highly of the conditions in life 
which are the results or the natural accompaniments of morality, 
we feel something peculiarly unlovely in the connotations of the 
term itself. One natural result is that we have an instinctive 
repugnance for the dramas that display this ugly brand so openly. 
It would not be much worse for them if they were termed, in- 
stead, " Respectability plays." 

But, while the name itself is equivalent to a warning to pass 
by on the other side, there are two characteristics, more organi- 
cally connected with the plays, that are just as displeasing. These 
are allegory and homily. I should like, then, before bidding my 
subject farewell, to consider briefly what defence may be made 
for the employment of these two devices in the Moralities. 

In the first place, it is quite safe to assume that the modern 
reader has a deep-seated abhorrence of the term " allegory." He 
occasionally finds himself reading with interest literature that 
belongs to the allegorical category, but that is because he finds 
in this literature some quality, apart from allegory, that charms 
or interests him. The Pilgrim's Progress and the first two cantos 

257 



2 58 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

of The Faerie Qtieene still have their wide circles of readers, in 
spite of the allegorical framework on which they are constructed. 
In The Faerie Queene the reader allows himself to be conducted, 
to the sound of Spenser's exquisite music, into the charmed 
country of mediaeval romance, and there he is thrilled with the 
interest that belongs to the vicissitudes of wandering knights 
and fair ladies. If the knights and ladies were designated by 
abstract or type names (in accordance with the strict tenets of 
allegory) instead of by names that are merely suggestive, the 
reader would find his interest seriously hampered. But, as it 
is, he can ignore the allegory as completely as if it were, as 
Mrs. Malaprop supposed, '" on the banks of the Nile." The 
commendation regularly accorded to Bunyan's masterpiece indi- 
cates the §ame sort of explanation for the interest which it still 
arouses. The Pilgrim s Progress, it is said, is to all intents and 
purposes a story of real life, and may be read and enjoyed as 
such. The allegorical framework, we are assured, can be ignored, 
and we can regard Christian and Hopeful as individual human 
beings of flesh and blood, travelling in strange lands, and en- 
countering sundry adventures with a great variety of other inter- 
esting human beings composed of equally solid flesh and crimson 
blood. This explanation is perfectly applicable to the work. 
While Bunyan carefully designated his characters by abstract 
and type names, he at the same time characterized them as 
individual human beings ; and thus his allegory approached so 
near to the confines of literal narrative that his readers, starting 
where he stopped, can with the slightest effort complete the 
journey by themselves, crossing the debatable land between al- 
legorical and literal, and establishing themselves securely and 
happily on the open ground of literal narrative. I shall show 
presently that exactly this same condition, though from a dif- 
ferent cause, was frequently brought about when the Moralities 
were presented on the stage. 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 259 

Bunyan wrote another work, The Holy War, in which the 
action all takes place in the remote and murky forest of allegory. 
The scheme is worked out with infinitely more pains than in 
The Pilgrim s Progress, but we no longer care to subject our- 
selves to the intellectual labor of translating The Holy War into 
literal terms. 

I hope not to be understood as implying here a contradiction 
to a remark, made in my Preface, that the finest Moralities are 
those which cling most consistently to the allegorical scheme, 
A piece of literature cannot be a work of art simply by virtue 
of being consistently allegorical. In allegory, as in other forms 
of literature, the measure of success must be estimated by inter- 
est and effectiveness. Neither of these qualities can exist long 
if the reader is compelled to make swift and recurrent transitions 
from allegorical action to abstract statement. In the Moralities, 
with their well-recognized and comparatively simple conventional 
schemes, the action is rarely so involved as to become confusing ; 
but in spite of this, the author, for reasons which I shall specify 
later, frequently compels his actors to pause and deliver an ap- 
parently uncalled-for explanation of actions that seem in them- 
selves obvious. This compels the reader or spectator to move 
rapidly from one atmosphere to another, and the interest, which 
should be continuous, is broken. But if, on the other hand, the 
allegory becomes so involved as to be meaningless without an 
understanding of the interpretation underlying the allegorical 
action — and this is the case in The Holy War — the reader is 
compelled on his own account to pause and get his bearings ; 
and the interest is again, for the time at least, diverted from 
the allegorical narrative itself. 

The finest allegory, then, is that which maintains an interest 
in itself, and for its own sake, and which does not request or 
compel the reader to close his eyes, even for a moment, in order 
to puzzle out its connection with the actual meaning. To this 



26o THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

end an allegory should be consistent, and it should be compara- 
tively simple, not dealing with remote or unfamiliar ideas. The 
underlying meaning may flow along with it so smoothly that the 
reader will subconsciously perceive it, or it may be entirely ig- 
nored at the moment, to be " recollected in tranquillity " at a 
later time. In this class are the two Moralities to which I 
accorded special praise in my Preface, — Everyman and the 
Play of Wit and Science. 

The injustice done to allegory to-day is in the tacit assumption 
that all allegory is bad allegory, — that it is dull if we accept it 
as it is, and irritating if we try to translate it into literal terms. 
We are more interested, we say, in the spectacle of our flesh- 
and-blood fellow-creatures as they battle with temptations, make 
love to each other, and pass through the fire and flood of strange 
adventure. The "' bloodless abstractions " of allegory are remote 
from the life we love to contemplate. They make no appeal to 
our sympathies, and we prefer to employ our intellects in a more 
practical way. There is, I think, a real reason for this feeling 
of irritation in the fact that in modern literature we frequently 
encounter works which are robbed of much of their human 
interest by the occasional introduction of allegory. Such a de- 
vice is, indeed, intensely irritating, and quite warrants a reader 
in desiring to curse allegory out of existence. In parts of Tenny- 
son's Idylls of the King we feel that a brave story of love and 
chivalry is being pruned down to make space for a bit of lifeless 
allegory quite out of place in such surroundings ; and we natu- 
rally look upon the allegory with the resentment that an intruder 
inspires. In such an environment it is, of course, unnatural. If 
it is to be effective, it must move by itself, and not in conjunc- 
tion with pictures of supposed reality. The plays that I have 
considered in the preceding chapter are, in every case, seriously 
hampered by the grafting-on of allegorical characters and actions 
to their main scheme of literal presentation. 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 261 

When, however, an allegory fulfills the rather simple condi- 
tions that I have laid down, it may be quite as interesting and 
absorbing as a narrative or representation of real life. The 
effect, as a matter of fact, is much the same. While more is 
meant than meets either the eye or the ear, no guide-book is 
necessary or desirable for the purpose of ascertaining what that 
more is. The attention is centered on the action itself, and the 
action charms and interests in proportion to the skill of its 
presentation. We should approach a consideration of the ab- 
solute merits of the Moralities with this sympathetic realization, 
and with the recollection that the Moralities were in their day 
not read, but acted. This latter fact had, undoubtedly, a great 
influence in preserving the proper attitude towards allegory on 
the part of the audience. If, then, we would consider the ques- 
tion of excellence in the case of the Moralities, we should try 
to ascertain the contemporary point of view. 

In the first place, we must remember that, for the potential 
spectators of the Moralities, the classifying term had none 
of the unpleasant connotations that it has for us, and that the 
literary method for which the term stands had for them the 
comfortable associations of an accepted convention. Their an- 
cestors for generations had regarded human problems through 
the medium of allegory, and had been keenly interested in the 
medium itself. The time had not yet arrived for relegating 
allegory as a means of amusement and intellectual recreation to 
the dust-bin of literary tradition, and they came to the spectacle 
with unprejudiced minds. 

In the second place, it is obviously unfair to dismiss the 
dramatis personae of the Moralities as a set of dreary abstrac- 
tions, going through a series of lifeless dialogues merely to 
bring out a moral. They could not have been dreary abstrac- 
tions to the people who saw them on the stage, or, needless 
to say, they would not have appeared in play after play for 



262 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

more than two hundred years. In the MoraHty of Mankind 
the spectators are called upon to pay " red royals " in return 
for the pleasure of witnessing the performance, and there is 
no indication that they could enjoy it more cheaply in other 
cases. Thus, since Moralities continued to be acted, the spec- 
tators continued to sacrifice their royals for the sake of behold- 
ing them, and consequently the spectacle must have afforded 
them a considerable amount of satisfaction. What fascination, 
then, could the Morality have possessed which it is now so 
hard for us to detect .? 

The question of comparative excellence among the Moralities 
I have discussed from time to time in the preceding pages. At 
present I am concerned with refuting the wholesale condemna- 
tion of plays of this type. Now, judged purely as literature to 
read, the Moralities are, I think, underestimated in most literary 
histories. For a long time the convention has been to dismiss 
them with the remark that they are dull, homiletic, and lifeless ; 
and a glance at the lists of dramatis personae seems to bear out 
this remark. A play presenting a set of characters designated 
as Mankind, Riot, Charity, Humility, Pride, and Lechery hardly 
gives promise of interesting dialogue or exciting action. But, if 
one reads doggedly on in order to discover what such a play 
actually contains, one will probably discover that the more vicious 
of these apparently chilly abstractions indulge in a good deal of 
coarse but frequently amusing repartee ; that they exhibit a sur- 
prising amount of virility in opposing their natural enemies in 
the open field, and a fine if reprehensible subtlety in hatching 
their plots under cover ; and that a good deal of excitement and 
suspense is aroused in the outcome of the strife between the lewd 
fellows and their virtuous opponents to supplant each other in the 
favor and companionship of Mankind. The patient reader, thus 
encouraged to peruse other plays, will also find that Riot, Pride, 
and the like are often characterized as distinct personalities, 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 263 

and that they exhibit amusing idiosyncrasies which add materially 
to the interest without detracting from the consistency of the 
allegory. If all this can be found in the Moralities, the actual 
state of the case is very different from the popular belief that 
each allegorical character, labelled with his name, appears in his 
appropriate scene, makes his appropriate speech, and retires. 

If the reader who has made the discoveries outlined above 
then goes on to consider that the plays which he has found 
so much above the expectation raised by the lists of dramatis 
personae were written, not to be read, but to be acted, he will 
probably come to the conclusion that the spectators did not pay 
down their good "' red royals " for nought. He will, in that case, 
be arriving at what I conceive to be the only just conclusion, 
reached by the only reasonable method. No criticism of the 
Moralities can be definitive which ignores the fact that they 
were presented to contemporaries as acted performances. 

Our own contemporaries were somewhat surprised, a few 
years ago, to discover that Everyman was tremendously effective 
on the stage. The general situation in the play (man in the 
presence of death) is, to be sure, one that by its inherent tragic 
intensity might be supposed to appeal to people of all times. 
But the criticism that is applied to Moralities in general will 
apply just as readily to the play of Everyman. When the 
summons comes to the type that represents mankind to present 
his account before the throne of God, this type-person proceeds 
to several other type-persons and to personifications of abstract 
qualities, with the request that they accompany him. Would not 
this situation, we might ask, be made infinitely more effective 
if we had, instead, an individual person surrounded in his last 
moments by his friends, and striving pathetically to prepare for 
death by the same methods that have enabled him to live his 
life .'' And is not the allegorical method unbearably artificial 
and lifeless as a medium for depicting so important a crisis ? 



264 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

These questions might easily be answered to the discredit of 
Everyman if it had remained simply a printed text. But those 
who have seen it on the stage realize that such an estimate 
would be entirely unfair. When the play was acted, the char- 
acters, instead of being dreary types and abstractions, were at 
once individualized and humanized ; and the same transformation 
once took place in the case of every one of the other Moralities 
which are now so hastily judged on the basis of the printed copy. 
There is no evidence that the play of Everyman was especially 
popular in the days when Moralities held the stage. On the 
other hand, there is pretty good evidence that the kind of Mo- 
rality of which Everyman is the exemplar was not very popular. 
Of the thirty-one Moralities that have come down to us, only 
two are constructed on the scheme presenting the Summons of 
Death, while in the popular class presenting the Conflict between 
Virtues and Vices are listed twenty-four out of the thirty-one. 
Some of the probable reasons for this proportion I have already 
discussed.^ Suffice it now to say that in the dramatic spectacle 
of two opposing bands intent upon victory at all costs, and usually 
with a very tangible and important prize as the meed of victory, 
the spectator of the Morality period probably found the excite- 
ment and interest that the theatregoer always demands in return 
for his money. When these so-called " bloodless abstractions " 
appeared on the stage, they had to bestir themselves vigorously 
if they would maintain the field against their natural foes. The 
plays exhibit now one party, now the other, in the ascendant ; 
and these ups and downs are accompanied by many a subtle 
plot and many a stern encounter. The suspense aroused and 
the excitement stimulated in the minds of the spectators would, 
as always, depend largely on the combined skill of the play- 
wright and the actors ; but the potentialities were inherent in 
the Morality itself. 

1 See p. 202, above. 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 265 

I referred, a few pages back, to the fact that the allegory of 
The Pilgrim s Progress approaches so near to the borders of 
concrete narrative that its readers frequently forget that they 
are following an allegory ; and then went on to mention that 
the same result, from a different cause, was apparently produced 
in the acting of the Moralities. This cause I have, as I think, 
just indicated. In some of the Moralities we find that speeches 
are introduced in which the actors call attention to the allegori- 
cal signification of their actions. This apparently resulted from 
the knowledge, on the part of the playwright, that his audience 
was prone to center its interest in the very human and exciting 
action on the stage. If the playwright happened to be a person 
of stern moral purpose, he would naturally be anxious that his 
audience should not lose sight of the excellent lesson inculcated, 
and he would take this precaution to ensure their souls' welfare. 
The occasional device, then, of breaking the allegory to call 
attention to its meaning is a most interesting bit of testimony 
that the spectators, without this device, were likely to be seduced 
by the excitement of the action into regarding the play as a 
purely human spectacle. 

Again, the scheme presenting the Conflict between Virtues 
and Vices has wide possibilities of humor ; and this was another 
reason for its great popularity. In Everyman there is not a glint 
of humor, except in the situation where the fickle Cosyn sud- 
denly develops the cramp in his toe which conveniently prevents 
him from accompanying Everyman on his pilgrimage. The motif 
of such a play is the most solemn within the range of human 
experience. No humorous possibilities are inherent in the scheme. 
Humor could be introduced only in isolated scenes of the kind 
that are inserted in Shakespearean tragedy to relieve the intoler- 
able strain of the main action. And in such a play as Everyman, 
where the action is, from the very nature of the situation, swift 
and brief, no spectator could wish to have the main allegorical 



266 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

scheme interrupted by disconnected scenes of humor that would 
be grotesquely out of place.^ But the popular Conflict scheme, 
on the other hand, includes a list of characters that lend them- 
selves naturally to humorous dialogue and situation. These are 
the Vices, the jovial scoundrels who are the natural opponents 
of the Virtues, and who are actuated by a burning zeal to main- 
tain friendly relations with Man. When these abstract personi- 
fications of vice foregather in private to lay plans and compare 
experiences, they frequently become, for the time being, types 
representing mortals who lead reprehensible lives. In this ca- 
pacity they entertain themselves, and incidentally the audience, 
with many a merry anecdote of the lives they lead ; indulge in 
sallies of repartee which are often coarse, but, from the point 
of view of the contemporary spectator, always amusing ; and 
frequently proceed from repartee to active trials of strength and 
skill. Then, when they advance to the real business of conquer- 
ing or supplanting their enemies, the Virtues, they frequently 
resort to subterfuges and practical jokes which would delight an 
age that still detected humor in such things. 

The merry quips, gibes, and practical jokes of these repre- 
sentatives of vice might seem at first to be out of harmony 
with the spirit of a play which is in its scheme allegorical, and 
which has for its avowed object the inculcation of morality. But 
such is not necessarily the case. As to their fitness in an alle- 
gorical scheme, it is to be noted that personified vices, if they 
are to be consistently characterized, are best characterized by 
having carnal conversation and ungodly acts attributed to them. 
Now, while such acts and such conversation are not in strict 

1 The allegory is so interrupted in Lyndsay's Satyre of the TTirie Estaites. But 
here the scheme is of a very different kind, and, from the nature of the situa- 
tion, moves slowly. Besides, the Satyre is of excessive length, and could not 
be viewed at a continuous session. Consequently, the isolated humorous 
Interludes are introduced for the purpose of allowing the spectators to depart 
occasionally for purposes carefully specified by the Prologue. 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 267 

accord with the severe tenets of good behavior, they are often 
undeniably amusing, and are eminently in harmony with the 
characters of reprehensible persons and personified vices. As 
to their fitness in a play written to encourage morality, we are 
to remember that one orthodox way of persuading people to be 
good is to teach them to shun evil. The Morality playwright 
was sensible enough to realize that Vice is not always a mon- 
ster of frightful mien, but that he frequently appears as a very 
amusing and companionable creature. But he never committed 
the blunder of allowing his audience to depart with the convic- 
tion that vice is, after all, more pleasant than virtue. The true 
natures of the seemingly attractive personifications of evil were 
always laid bare, and the spectator discovered, or was confirmed 
in the impression, that while vice is at first sight " pleasant to 
each man's intent," its ways lead down to hell. 

In our hasty strictures on the Morality, which, we say, was 
written with a moral and not with a dramatic purpose, we over- 
look the fact that writers of the drama from beginning to end 
have argued for the moral effect of their productions. During 
the most corrupt period of the English drama, the writers of 
comedy still contended that they were exhibiting vices and fol- 
lies to be shunned, that they attacked immorality by showing 
it to be foolish and harmful. One may well question whether 
these dramatists did not occasionally introduce their scenes of 
folly and vice, not in a fury of moral zeal, but rather from a 
politic desire to amuse the audience ; but, at least, they were 
employing the sound argument that men may be taught virtue 
by being warned against vice. They realized, what the Morality 
playwright realized long before them, that a play, to inculcate 
morality, does not necessarily exhibit only persons who preach 
morality, and that it is not perforce heavy and solemn, but will 
be more successful in a variety of ways if it is frequently the 
opposite. 



268 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

This leads to the second point proposed for consideration in 
this chapter, — the presence of homily in the Moralities. The 
whole purpose in this concluding discussion is to give reasons 
for the belief that the plays in question were not merely moral 
disquisitions, moulded in a dramatic form that was dull and 
uninteresting, and foisted upon an unwilling audience, but that 
they were plays conforming to a literary scheme that had long 
been in favor, and were written in a way that was pleasing to 
the audience upon whose verdict their success depended. Now, 
along with the humorous scenes that have just been discussed, 
there appears, in all of the Moralities, a good deal of homiletic 
moralizing and religious instruction. That is, the playwright 
carried out his avowed purpose of inculcating morality not merely 
in the negative but also in the positive way. The same sort of 
defence, however, that I have made for allegory as a dramatic 
method suited to the times, can also, I think, be made for the 
frequent presence of the dramatic homily. 

In the Moralities most of the really dramatic effects are pro- 
duced by the champions of vice, occasionally reinforced by the 
representative of mankind in a state of depravity. These are 
the actors who deal in lively sallies of wit, formulate subtle 
schemes and deep-laid plots, and exhibit exciting rapidity of 
action. In addition to this, they are frequently characterized 
in amusing and interesting ways. But with the actors repre- 
senting virtues the case is very different. They, as a rule, do 
justify the familiar defining phrase "bloodless abstractions," 
and one is led to suspect that the critics have taken the word 
"morality" too literally, and have supposed that the Virtues are 
the only important actors. These personifications of commend- 
able qualities are often very slightly characterized. They are 
never consciously amusing, and are never entertaining in our 
sense of the word. When they are not engaged in administering 
lofty rebukes to their opponents, they conceive it to be their 



THE MORALITY IN ITS OWN DAY 269 

business to impart moral and religious instruction, in the form 
of long speeches, to the dramatic representative of mankind, 
or to the audience. But they return to the stage so often, and 
remain there so much of the time, that we should do well to 
inquire whether or not they v^oxe personae gratae to the playgoers. 

It cannot be premised too often or too emphatically that when 
men are engaged in serving the public the broad lines of their 
work are laid down by that public itself. Many of our contem- 
poraries applaud vigorously from their exalted station in the 
theatre when a noble sentiment is uttered from the stage ; but 
they would give a very different expression of personal feeling 
if they were treated, instead, to a long homiletic speech on the 
advisability of preparing for death, or on Saint Paul's explanation 
of the scheme of redemption. For this reason among others we 
hear many beautiful sentiments when we attend the theatre, but 
practically no homiletic speeches. If, on the other hand, the 
plays of another period are consistent and regular in their 
introduction of such speeches, we may be sure that the latter 
found favor in the eyes of those whose patronage supported 
the stage. 

It is well known that the poetic homily was an established 
literary form before and during the time when Moralities were 
being produced. Outside of the classic literature of this period, 
which is itself frequently homiletic in form, there was a large 
body of more popular poetry (part of which has been preserved) 
that consisted of religious instruction and moral exhortation. In 
addition to this, the puh'ic had been accustomed, for generations 
before the appearance of the Moralities, to receiving religious 
instruction through the riiedium of the drama as embodied in 
the Miracle plays. The Moralities, therefore, were simply em- 
ploying what was a well-recognized and acceptable tradition in 
both poetry and drama when they in turn exhibited a tendency 
to moralize and instruct ; and the spectators, apparently, had no 



2/0 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

suspicion of the great truth, which it remained for later ages to 
discover, that moral and religious matters are in harmony, not 
with the pleasures and employments of the week, but only with 
the quiet retirement of the seventh day and the house of prayer. 
It is not an easy matter to make out a convincing case for 
the inherent excellence of a type of play that has been persist- 
ently decried in the pages of many standard works. And this 
task is rendered all the more difficult since the type presents 
many characteristics which, while they were undeniably suited 
to contemporary tastes and needs, become merely dull and irk- 
some when they confront the readers and critics of to-day. My 
appeal for a juster estimate of the Moralities must be to the 
student whose literary sympathies are not wholly bound up with 
that which makes an immediate and obvious appeal to the present, 
but who can still find merit in a form of dramatic entertainment 
that seems to have possessed, in its own day, the power to please 
as well as to instruct. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND EDITIONS 



Bates, Katharine Lee. The English Religious Drama. New York, 
1893. 

Brandl, Alois. Quellen des weltlichen Dramas in England vor Shake- 
speare. Ein Erganzungsband zu Dodsley's Old English Plays. (Quellen 
und Forschungen, LXXX.) Strassburg, 1898. 

Carpenter, Frederic Ives. The Life and Repentance of Marie Mag- 
dalene, by Lewis Wager. Chicago, 1904. 

Chambers, E. K. The Mediaeval Stage. 2 vols. Oxford, 1903. 

Collier, J. P. The History of English Dramatic Poetry to the Time of 
Shakespeare. London, 1879. 

Collier, J. P. Illustrations of Early English Popular Literature. London, 
1864. 

CouRTHOPE, W. J. A History of English Poetry, Vols. I and II. London, 
1895-1897. 

Creizenach, Wilhelm. Geschichte des neueren Dramas. Vols. I-III. 
Halle, 1893-1903. 

CusHMAN, L. W. The Devil and the Vice in the English Dramatic Litera- 
ture before Shakespeare. Halle, 1900. 

DODSLEY, R. A Select Collection of Old Plays. Chronologically arranged, 
revised and enlarged by W. C. Hazlitt. 4th ed., 15 vols. London, 
1874-1876. 

Ellis, F. S. The Golden Legend ; or. Lives of the Saints, as Englished 
by W. Caxton. London, 1900. (Temple Classics.) 

Farmer, John Stephen. Anonymous Plays. Series 1-4. London, 
1905-1908. 

Farmer, John Stephen. The Dramatic Writings of John Bale. 
London, 1907. 

Farmer, John Stephen, Recently Recovered " Lost " Tudor Plays. 
London, 1907. 

Farmer, John Stephen. The Tudor Facsimile Texts. London, 1907. 

Fleay, F. G. History of the Stage. London, 1 890. 

271 



272 THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 

FuRNiVALL, F. J. The Digby Plays, with an Incomplete Morality of 
Wisdom, Who is Christ. 1882. (New Shakspere Society, Series VII, i ; 
reissued for Early English Text Society, 1896.) 

FuRNivALL, F. J., and Pollard, Alfred W. The Macro Plays. Early 
English Text Society, London, 1904. 

Gayley, Charles Mills. Representative English Comedies. London, 
1903. 

Gayley, Charles Mills. Plays of our Forefathers. New York, 1907. 

Halliwell, J. O. Ludus Coventriae. A Collection of Mysteries, formerly 
represented at Coventry on the Feast of Corpus Christi. Shakespeare 
Society, London, 1841. 

Herford, C. H. The Literary Relations of England and Germany in the 
Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, 1886. 

Hone, W. Ancient Mysteries described, especially the English Miracle 
Plays, founded on Apocryphal New Testamenc Story, extant among 
the unpublished Manuscripts in the British Museum. London, 1823. 

Jahrbuch des deutschen Shakespeare-Gesellschaft. 45 vols. 1865-1909. 

KOELBING, Arthur. Zur Characteristik John Skeltons. Stuttgart, 1904. 

Laing, David. The Poetical Works of Sir David Lyndsay. 3 vols. Edin- 
burgh, 1879. 

Magnus, Leonard. Respublica. Early English Text Society, London, 
1894. 

Malone Society Reprints. London, 1907. 

Manly, J. M. Specimens of the Pre-Shaksperean Drama, Vols. I and II. 
Boston, 1897. 

Petit DE JuLLEViLLE, Louis. Les Myst^res. 2 vols. Paris, 1880. (Part 
of Histoire du theatre en France.) 

Petit de Julleville, Louis. La Com^die et les moeurs en France au 
moyen ige. Paris, 1886. 

Petit de Julleville, Louis. Repertoire du theatre comique en France 
au moyen ige. Paris, 1886. 

Petit de Julleville, Louis. Les Com^diens en France au moyen &ge. 
Paris, 1889. 

Pollard, A. W. English Miracle Plays, Moralities, and Interludes. Ox- 
ford, 1890. 

Raine, J. The Towneley Mysteries. With preface by J. Hunter and glos- 
sary by J. Gordon. 1836. (Surtees Society, III.) 

Ramsay, Robert Lee. Skelton's " Magnyfycence." Early English Text 
Society, London, 1908. 

Romania : recueil trimestriel consacrd k I'dtude des langues et des httdratures 
romanes. 37 vols. 1872-1908. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES AND EDITIONS 273 

Smith, Lucy Toulmin. The Plays performed by the Crafts or Mysteries 

of York on the Day of Corpus Christi. Oxford, 1885. 
Symonds, John Addington. Shakspeare's Predecessors in the English 

Drama. London, 1884. 
Ten Brink, Bernhard. Geschichte des englischen Litteratur. Berlin 

and Strassburg, 1877-1893. 
Traver, Hope, The Four Daughters of God. Philadelphia, 1907. 
Ward, A. W. A History of English Dramatic Literature. 2d ed. 3 vols. 

London, 1899. 
Wright, Thomas. The Chester Plays. 2 vols. 1843. (Shakespeare 

Society.) 



INDEX 



Abominable Living, 97 
Abundance, 107 ff. 
Adolotria, 44 ff. 
Adulation, 228 if., 241 
Adversity, 79 
Albion, Knight, 118 ff. 
Albion, Knight, 118 fif. 
All for Money, 195 ff. 
All-for-Money, 198 ff. 
Allegory, as employed in the Morali- 
ties, 257 ff. ; wrong use of, 260 
Ambidexter, 249 
Ambition, 241, 254 
Appius and Virginia, ID ff., 250 ff. 
Avarice, 48, 139 ff., 227 ff. 

Bacbytynge, 60 ff. 

Backbiter, 28 ff. 

Bale, John, 43, 185, 219 

Barnabas, 14, 235 ff. 

Bates, Professor Katharine Lee, 20 

Bodily Lust, 74 

Cambyses, 248 ff. 

Cardinal Virtues, see Seven 

Carnall Concupiscence, 114 

Castle of Perseverance, The, 58 ff., 70, 

73, 202, 205 
Chambers, E. K., 2, 3 
Charity, 100 ff. 
Charyte, 245 ff. 
Chastitie, 89 ff. 
Christianitye, 190 ff. 
Circumspeccyon, 80 
Clargy, 221 ff. 
Classification of the Moralities on the 

basis of allegorical structure, 21 ff. 
Cloked Colusyon, 78 ff. 
Collier, J. Payne, 4, 19 
Common Thift, 214 
Commynalte, 224 ff. 
Confession, 209 

Conflict of Conscience, The, 1 1 ff., 137 ff. 
Confusion, 135 



Confydence, I56ff. 

Conscience, 52 ff., 107 ff., 141, 250 £f., 

253 ff- 

Conscyence, 84 ff. 

Constancy, 246 

Contemplacio, 24 ff. 

Contemplacyon, 40 ff. 

Contentation, 128 ff. 

Controversial tendencies in the Mor- 
alities, 43, 46, 76, 87, 95, 99, 119, 
162, 211, 226-227 

Conversion of St. Paul, The, 34 

Corage, 187 ff., 

Correction, 191, 212 ff. 

Counterfet Countenaunce, 77 ff. 

Courthope, W. J., 2, 8, 160 note 

Courtly Abusyon, 78 ff. 

Coventry Cycle, The, 24 ff. 

Crafty Conveyaunce, 77 ff. 

Creizenach, W., 8 

Cruelty, 48 

Cupiditie, 114 

Curiosity, 36 

Curyosytie, 245 

Cuthbert Cutpurse, 183 fit. 

Dalila, 14, 235 ff. 

Damnation, 197, 199 

Danger, 87 ff. 

Deadly Sins, see Seven 

Death, 30 ff., 203 ff., 206 ff. 

Definition of the Morality, 9 

Devil, the, 96, 138, 149 ff., 181 ff., 
184, 197, 240 ; considered as a char- 
acter in the Moralities, 2 ff. 

Diligence, 170 ff. 

Discipline, 132 ff 

Disobedient Child, The, 13 ff., 238 ff. 

Dispayre, 191 

Dissait, 88 ff. 

Dissimulation, 52 ff., 253 ff. 

Division, 119 ff. 

Divyne Correctioun, 90 ff., 212 ff. 

Dylygence, 1 56 ff. 



27s 



276 



THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 



Dyspare, 79 
Dyssymulacyon, 2198. 

Elation, 1 27 ff. 

Envy, 105 ff. 

Equytie, 245 ff. 

Evell Counsayle, 243 ff. 

Everyman, 5 ff., 202, 206 ff., 260, 263 ff. 

Everyman, 5 ff., 206 ff. 

Exercitation, 132 ff. 

Experience, 146 ff., 1699. 

Experyence, 1 59 ff . 

Faerie Queene, The, 7, 258 ff. 

Fame, 52 

Fancy, 176 

Fansy, 77 ff. 

Fayned-furtheraunce, 188 ff. 

Faythfull-few, 190 ff. 

Felicite, 76 ff. 

Fellowship, 6 ff., 97, 207 

Flatterie, 88 ff. 

Folly, 134 

Folie, 215 

Foly, 78 ff. 

Folye, 85 ff. 

Four Elements, Interlude of the, 144 ff.. 

Fraud, 52 ff., 253 ff. 

French influence on the Moralities, 

121, 180 note, 192 
Frewyl, 39 ff., 46, 65, 92, 172 

Gayley, C. M., 20 ff. 

God, 44 ff., 64, 206 ; considered as a 

character in the Moralities, 2 ff. 
God's Judgement, 135 
God's Merciful Promises, 98 
God's Promise, 184 
God's Visitation, I29ff. 
Good Counsel, 95 ff. 
Good Deeds, 208 ff. 
Good Fame, 184 
Good Hope, 79 
Good Nurture, 174 ff. 
Goods, 208 
Greedinesse, 6, 188 ff. 
Greedy-gut, 127 ff. 
Gude Counsall, 88 ff., 212 fif. 

Hamelines, 87 ff. 
Hance, 163 ff., 183 ff. 
Hankin Hangman, 184 



Haphazard, 250 ff. 

Hardydardy, 241 ff. 

Health, 162 ff. 

Hele (Health), 203 ff. 

Herod, 30 ff. 

Holy War, The, 259 

Homily in the Moralities, 257, 268 ff. 

Honest Recreacion, 1 57 ff. 

Honest Recreation, 175 

Honour, 184 

Horestes, 247 ff. 

Horror, 141 

Hospitality, 54 

Humanity, 145 ff. 

Humility, 104 

Humor in the Moralities, 265 ff. 

Hurtfull-helpe, 188 ff. 

Hyckescomer, 8, 39 ff. 

Hyckescorner, 39 ff. 

Hypocrisy, 48, 90 ff., 139 ff. 

Idellnes, 158 ff. 

Idelnesse, 243 ff. 

Idleness, 174 ff. 

Idlenesse, 133 ff. 

Idylls of the King, 260 

Ignorance, 47 ff., 134 ff., 147 ff. 

Ill Will, 163 ff. 

Imagynacyon, 39 ff., 46, 65, 92, 172 

Impatient Poverty, 105 ff. 

Impatient Poverty, 106 ff. 

Imperyall Majesty e, 225 

Importunyte, 245 

Inclination, I26ff. 

Incontinence, 133 ff. 

Indulgence, 173 ff. 

Infidelitas, 44 ff. 

Infidelitie, 112 ff. 

Ingnorance, 1 58 ff. 

Iniquitie, 13 ff., 236 ff. 

Iniquytie, 245 ff. 

Injury, 118 ff. 

Innocency, 71 ff. 

Insolence, 227 ff. 

Instruccion, 155 ff. 

Instruction, 170 ff. 

Interlude, meaning of the term, 99 

note 
Irksomeness, 175 
Ismael, 14, 235 ff. 

Johan the Evangelist, 243 ff. 
Johne the Common-weill, 212 ff. 



INDEX 



277 



Just, 122 ff. 

Justice, ii8ff., 250 ff. 

Kindred, 207 ff. 
Knowledge, 96, 209 
Knowledge of Sinne, 115 
Kyng Daryus, 244 ff. 
Kyng of Lyfe, the, 203 ff. 
Kynge Johan, 217 ff., 228 
Kynge Johan, 218 ff. 

Langton, Stephen, 223 
Lawe of God, the 1158. 
Lechery, 103 
Liberte, 76 ff. 
Liberty, 163 ff. 
Light of the Gosppl, 48 ff. 
Like Will to Like, Quoth the Devil 
to the Collier, 16 ff., 121, 180 ff., 

235 
Longer Thou Livest the More Foole 

Thou Art, The, 131 ff., 168 note 
Love, 52 ff., 253 ff. 
Lucre, 53 ff., 253 ff. 
Lust, 122 ff. 
Lusty Juventus, 95 ff. 

Magnyfycence, 75 ff., no 

Magnyfycence, Skelton's, 75 ff., 93, 
228 note 

Malicious Judgement, 114 ff. 

Man, 26 ff., 70 ff. 

Mankind, 65 ff. 

Mankind, 60 ff., 262 

Mankynde, 66 ff. 

Marie Magdalene, 113 ff. 

Marie Magdalene, The Life and Re- 
pentance of. III ff., 219 

Mary Magdalene, 34 ff. 

Mary Magdalene, 36 ff. 

Mathetes, 138 ff. 

Measure, 76 ff. 

Mercy, 66 ff. 

Mercy, Truth, Righteousness, and 
Peace, 233 ; debate of, 26 ff., 63 ff., 
68 

Miracle plays, influence of, on the 
Moralities, 37 

Mirth, 204 ff. 

Mischeff, 66 ff. 

Misrule, 108 ff. 

Money, 196 ff. 

Moros, 131 ff. 



Mundus et Infans, 82 ff. 
Mynde, i49ff. 

Nature, 70 ff. 

Nature, 71, i45ff., 168 ff. 

Nemesis, 233 

Nemo, 55, 253 ff. 

New Custom, 8, 46 ff. 

New Custom, 48 ff. 

New Gyse, Now-a-days, and Nought, 

66 ff. 
Nice Wanton, The, 13 ff., 15, 17, 121, 

235 ff- 
Nichol Newf angle, 16, 181 ff. 
Nobelyte, 221 ff. 
No-good-Neighbourhood, 188 ff. 

Oppression, 227 ff. 

Pandulph, Cardinal, 218, 223 

Parcyalytie, 245 

Pauper, 213 ff. 

Paynted-profite, 188 ff. 

Peace, 105 ff. 

Penance, 61 

People, 135, 231 ff. 

Perplexitie, 245 

Perseverance, 80, 86 

Perseveraunce, 40 ff. 

Perverse Doctrine, 47 ff. 

Philip Fleming, 183 ff. 

Philologus, II ff., 138 ff. 

Pietie, 132 ff. 

Pilgrim'' s Progress, The, 7, 257 ff. 

Placebo, 87 ff. 

Pleasure, 129 ff., 196 ff., 253 ff. 

Policy, 253 ff. 

Pollard, A. W., 18 ff. 

Pomp, 253 ff. 

Poverte, 79 

Pride, 102 ff., 114, 241, 254 

Pryde of Lyfe, The, 202 ff. 

Pryvat Welth, 218 ff. 

Psychomachia, 39 

Pyte, 40 ff. 

Queen Hester, Interlude of the Virtu- 
ous and Godly, 240 ff. 

Raise-Slander, 28 ff. 
Ralph Roister, 182 ff. 
Ramsay, R. L., 18 
Raymundus, 223 



2/8 



THE ENGLISH MORALITIES 



Reason, 71 ff., 155 ff., i69ff. 
Redresse, 80 
Remedy, 164 ff. 
Respublica, 226 ff. 
Respublica, 230 ff. 
Revenge, 247 ff. 
Rex Humanitas, 87 ff., 212 ff. 
Riot, loiff. 

Sapience, 128 

Sapientia, 31 

Satyre of the Thrie Estaites, Part I, 76, 

87 ff., 228 note; Part II, 211 ff., 

229 note 
Schryfte, 61 
Science, 169 ff. 
Sedwyson, 219 ff. 
Sensual Appetite, 145 ff. 
Sensual Suggestion, 140 ff. 
Sensualitie, 87 ff. 
Sensuality, 71 ff. 
Seven Cardinal Virtues, the, 62 
Seven Deadly Sins, the, 31, 32, 33 ff., 

35 ff., 59 ff., 70ff., 83 ff., 113,218 
Severity, 173 ff., 184 
Shame, 159 
Shrewd Wit, 163 ff. 
Simony, 52 ff., 253 ff. 
Simplicity, 52 ff., 253 ff. 
Sincerity, 53 ff. 
Sinne, 197 ff. 

Sins, see Seven Deadly Sins 
Sodomismus, 44 ff. 
Solace, 87 ff. 
Soul, the, 149 ff. 
Soul and Body, 63 ff. 
Spiritualitie, 89 ff., 212 ff. 
Streinth (Strength), 203 ff. 
Studious Desire, 145 ff. 
Study, I56ff., 170 ff. 
Sturdiness, i26ff. 
Sure Surveyaunce, 77 ff. 
Syvyll Orderj^22i ff. 

Tedyousnes, i56ff. 

Temporalitie, 212 ff. 

Three Ladies of London^ The, 50 ff., 

195 

Three Laws, the, 44 ff. 

Three Laws, The Comedy Concerning, 
43 ff., 166 

Three Lords and Three Ladies of Lon- 
don, The, 51, 253 ff. 



Tom Collier, 182 ff. 

Tom Tosspot, 182 ff. 

Treason, 224 ff. 

Treasure, 1 29 ff. 

Trial of Treasure, The, 121 ff., 131, 

168 note 
Tyde Taryeth No Man, The, 187 ff. 
Type, definition of specialized, 6; 

definition of universalized, 6 
Tyranny, 139 ff., 254 

Understondyng, 149 ff. 
Usurpyd Power, 219 ff. 
Usury, 52 ff., 253 ff. 

Veritie, 89 ff. 

Veryte, 224 ff. 

Virtues, see Seven Cardinal Virtues 

Virtuous Life, 183 ff. 

Wantonness, 87 ff., 174 ff. 

Ward, A. W., 4, 8 

Wastefullnesse, 190 ff. 

Wealth, 162 ff. 

Wealth and Health, 162 ff. 

Will, 167 ff. 

Willfull Wanton, 189 ff. 

Willing-to- win- worship, 189 

Wisdom, 27, 175 ff. 

Wisdom, who is Christ, 149 ff., 166 

Wit, 166, 167 ff., 173 ff. 

"Wit" plays, the, 144, 149, 155 ff. 

Wit and Science, The Marriage of, 8, 

167 ff., 173 ff- 
Wit and Wisdom, The Marriage of, 

173 ff- 
World, the, 72, 82 ff. 
World, the Flesh, and the Devil, the. 

35, 58, 59 ff., 151, 152 note 
Worldly Affection, 72 ff. 
Worldly Shame, 237 ff. 
Wrath, 133 ff. 
Wylle, 149 ff. 
Wysdom, 149 ff. 
Wyt, issff. 
Wyt and Science, The Play of, 8, 1 55 ff., 

260 

Xantippe, 2368. 

Ynglond, 220 ff. 

Youth, 95 ff., 100 ff. 

Youth, The Interlude of, 99 ff. 



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